Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

UTILITARIANISM [Updated From Class Notes of Dr. Mwemezi Christian MUKOYOGO]  Ch. 4 Loyd/Freeman 5th Ed. pp. 246-319  Friedman, Legal Theory

1. Utilitarianism and the Rise of Bourgeois rule; 2. Analytical Positivism 3. The Crisis of Positivistic Theory (a) H.L.A. Hart's Concept of Law and A Natural Law Answer by Lon Fuller. (b) Contemporary Debate - Dworkin, Summers, Raz, Lyons, Finnis, MacCormick, Honore, Rawls, David Lyons, etc. 4. General critique Consolidation of Bourgeois Power A. The Collapse of feudal Mode of Production  Collapse of feudal mode 14th - late 18th Cs.  Major events which led to the Bourgeois ascent to power are: o

French/American Revolutions

o

The Industrial Revolution.

 The Industrial Bourgeoisie came to power and there followed a revolution in the following fields: (a)

Production:  Scientific knowledge increased ; along the discovery of the machines and consequently industrial production.  Mechanical science exhibited the perfection of bourgeois knowledge.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

(b)

Philosophy:  Science had exhibited that the laws of nature sometimes operate in such a way that they are the opposite of what we see. For example, Corpenicus showed that the apparent movement of the sun is actually the movement of the earth. Harvey showed that blood is not static but circulates around the body. Newton showed that there is gravity pulls down things etc. Science was shattering the apparent World  Philosophy underwent changes - in the revolutionary period there emerged a conflict between the RATIONALISM and EMPIRICISM based on innate ideas and the other on experience. Kant United the two but held that we can only know the appearances of things but not the final causes. Thus knowledge was only superficial. When applied to man one can only know what society is by describing it (The phenomenal) but then if one wants to know the motive force of society which is based on morals i.e. the inner world (Noumenal) then it becomes hard. This inner world provides the CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE which gives obligatory duties and rights to man. It is the General Will as found within man himself. It provides the "OUGHTS" for society. Law is only dealing with "IS". The best law will follow the categorical imperative ("Do to others that which you would like them to do to yourself").

In short, Immanuel Kant, the German Idealist Philosopher, was telling the new bourgeois/liberal philosophers of his time that knowledge of the causes of things (essence of things) is impossible. The claims of hitherto philosophy, the natural law trends, rationalists and empiricists, were misdirected in their quest for the essence of things. Such substances or ‘reality’ were unknowable. Hence the role of science was only to describe successive appearances and classifying them; it was to deal with HOW and not with WHY.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

From this failure of philosophy there arose a new philosophy of science known as POSITIVISM led by Auguste Comte (1798-1857). Auguste Comte wrote (i) (ii) (iii)

Course of Positive Philosophy 1830-1842 based on Lectures 18261829. System of Positive Policy 1851-1854. The Catechism of Positivism 1852.

He maintained that man's development was characterised by three phases: (1) the theocratic stage, (2) the metaphysical stage, and (3) the positive stage. “(1). The Theocratic stage refers to explanation by personified deities. Comte broke this stage into 3 sub-stages: 1A. Animism- Turning everyday objects into items of extreme religious purpose and worship, perhaps with godlike qualities. 1B. Polytheism - Explanation of things through the use of many gods. 1C. Monotheism - Attributing all to a single, supreme deity. (2). The Metaphysical stage refers to explanation by impersonal abstract explanations. Often those with metaphysical systems would believe they are actually performing science, but are not. (3). The Positivist stage refers to scientific explanation based on observation, experiment, and comparison. Positive explanations rely upon a distinct method, the scientific method, for its justification. The role of positivism was not to find final causes but only to describe the world as it finds it.” [Law of Three Stages – Wikipedia]. Natural Laws could be applied to society through sociology, Comte argued. Any attempt to describe or find the causes of things was useless and could be left to Theology and Philosophy not to the Science of Positivism.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

Problems in the Sphere of Law These problems were much more manifested in England in 18th and 19th centuries where: (i)

The Merchants wanted certainty in the conduct of their affairs. The individuals who were to meet in the market could only operate on the basis of contractual relationships and not otherwise, it meant that it was important the ‘rules of the game’ be known by the parties in the market before they enter into transactions. The Law of Merchants was not certain due to the existing framework of the Common Law based on the doctrine of stare decis.

(ii)

The Common Law system based on the precedent system was slow and uncertain. Bentham later compared it to dog law – meaning that a dog would only know that it has committed some wrong when it is punished. The Common Law, through the case law system was indefinite up to the point where the Judge makes his ruling. This kind of ‘law making’ could hardly fit the changing circumstance of a market based economy.

(iii)

Procedural law was long and costly, in favour of privileged classes, the commercial classes wanted a quick determination of disputes.

(iv)

Alienation of property was still limited by law e.g. landed property.

(v)

Criminal law was old and antiquated. In 1800 there were 160 capital offences and by 1850 were minimal? Consequently there was a need for Reform. Reform was earlier led by the UTILITARIANS and later confirmed by POSITIVISM.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

1.

JEREMY BENTHAM 1748-1832 Wrote: 1. A Fragment on Government 1776 2. Principals of Morals and Legislation 1789.

According to Dicey Bentham: (i) (ii)

Laid down principles on which reform should be based. Laid down the method by which legislation could be used for reform.

Bentham showed that legislation was: (i)

A Science and this was the basis of the art of government. This scientific legislation was the subject matter of jurisprudence. Jurisprudence could either be censorial or expositorial. Censorial jurisprudence dealt with the art of legislation which dealt with ought to be. Expositorial jurisprudence dealt with Positive Law i.e. what is the Law. Bentham mainly dealt with Censorial Jurisprudence.

(ii)

The principle which was to guide Law-making was not Natural Law but UTILITY i.e. the greatest happiness of the greatest number (generality of law is derived from this proposition).

(iii)

Every individual was the best judge of himself and therefore Legislation must aim at making man frees - i.e. he defended laissez faire dogma.

(iv)

The method of Legal Reform cannot be judicial but Parliamentary. i.e. there must be legislative reform and the role of the judge is only to apply the law and not interpret it. This was in accordance with Montesquieu’s doctrine of separation of powers.

UTILITARIANISM

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

A philosophical movement which arose during and immediately after the bourgeoisie revolution. The Dictionary definition says the following on Utilitarianism. 1:

a doctrine that the useful is the good and that the determining consideration of right conduct should be the usefulness of its consequences; specifically : a theory that the aim of an action should be the largest possible balance of pleasure over pain or the greatest happiness of the greatest number 2: utilitarian character, spirit, or quality [Merriam-Webster Dictionary]

Another Definition: Also known as universal hedonism, utilitarianism is an ethical philosophy in which the most moral or ethical acts are those which serve to increase the happiness for the most people and/or decrease the suffering for the most people. The philosophers most famous for developing utilitarianism during the early 19th century were Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, and Henry Sidgwick. Describing utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill wrote:

The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, utility or the greatest happiness principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure. Two important distinctions in utilitarianism are act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. The act-utilitarian asks, "How much pleasure or pain would result if I did this now?" The rule-utilitarian asks, "How much pleasure or pain would result if everyone were to do this?"

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

The distinction, then, lies in the fact that the act-utilitarian tends to judge each act in isolation whereas the rule-utilitarian judges an act in light of the possibility that it were to become a rule determining everyone's future acts. [http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/general/bldef_utilita rianism.htm]

It was founded by Jeremy Bentham who formulated its basic principle as the greatest happiness for the greatest number, through the satisfaction of individual interests. The morality of action can be mathematically calculated as a balance between pleasure and suffering from it. Bentham was basically opposed to the antiquated social system of feudalism in England. He advocated for free play of market forces under the theoretical frame that individuals were the source of society's progress. He propounded the principle of utility in the following works: (Introduction to Principles of Morals and Legislation p. 2): Nature has placed man under the empire of two masters pleasure and pain. We owe them all our ideas; we refer to them all our judgements, and all the determination of our life. He who pretends to withdraw himself from this subjection knows not what he says. His only object is to seek pleasure and to shun pain... These eternal and irresistible sentiments ought to be the great study of the moralist and the legislator. The principle of utility subjects everything to these two motives." Benthan argued that under the said principle it was possible to: (a) lay down principles or standards under which legal reform could be based, and (b) to formulate a method by which legislation could be the basis of legal reform. Bentham defined his choice of legislation as a tool of initiating change. He made the following proposals:

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

 Legislation could be an exact science, rather than higher law which had been based on custom and judge-made-law which lacked symmetry. He argued that law must be based on a system with definite principles of interpretation and which were certain. A system of codification could definitely assure the scientific determination of law.  It was for men to learn to use legislation to promote the greatest pleasure for the greatest number. It was important to study Censorial Jurisprudence which is the study of the art of legislation and the reasons for the justification of law. According to Bentham Expositorial jurisprudence was (is) simply the study of the law as it is.  By its very nature the study of law is general. A legislature is capable of enacting general norms or laws which will cover every class of persons in society.  Just laws will be enacted only if such a legislature takes into account considerations of the principles of utility and not otherwise. Once the principle of utility is applied one cannot question the justness or unjustiness of the principle.

The Principle of Utility Applied to Law: Anything which tends to augument the happiness of the community is utilitarian. Any action conformable to utility ought to be done, that is, it is right to do it and wrong not to do it. Individual action must conform to the community's needs for only then can man realise his greatest happiness. If he does not conform to the greatest happiness SANCTIONS must be applied. If he conforms he must get REWARDS. The punishments and rewards can be found in four domains: (i)

The popular and moral sanctions - these are based on the approval or disapproval of others in the community.

(ii)

Legal or Political Sanctions - based on the political power of the government.

(iii)

Religious Sanctions - which come from the divine agency.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

(iv)

Physical or Natural Sanctions which occur accidentally independent of human agency - for instance failure to follow the physical laws.

These were for Benthan the basis of the Science of Legislation. They could adjust pleasure and pain.

Bentham's Conception of Sovereignty and Source of Law: In order to apply Utility to law Bentham emphasized we must begin by defining what is meant by a Political Society. In his Fragment on Government Bentham declared: “When a number of persons (whom we may style subjects) are supposed to be in the habit of paying obedience to a person or an assemblage of persons of a known or certain description (whom we may call governor or governors) such persons altogether are said to be in a state of political society” [Fragment on Government, Ch. 1]. Thus for Bentham the Sovereign consists in: an assemblage of persons by whom the several operations (ie. of government) come to be performed and among these persons there commonly is some one person, or body of persons whose duty is to assign and distribute to the rest their several departments to determine the conduct to be performed by each in the performance of their particular set of operations that belongs to him, and even upon occasion to exercise his function in his stead. That body of persons or person is what Bentham termed as the sovereign. To Bentham the Sovereign's Will was absolute in that he cannot be commanded (uncommanded commander). The sovereign expresses his will through commands to the governed. The Sovereign’s Command is what is LAW. Bentham defined law as:

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

an assemblage of signs declarative of a volition concerned or adopted by the sovereign in a state, concerning the conduct to be observed in a certain case by a certain person or class of persons who in the case in question are or are supposed to be subject to his power. Betham's definition of law may be wider than if viewed from different perspectives which Bentham argued could give different views of law if seen according to: (i)

Its Source: The person or persons of whose Will it is the expression thereof. It is the sovereign's Will in a state;

(ii)

Its Subjects: persons or things to which it may apply;

(iii)

Its Objects: the acts as characterised by the circumstances to which it may apply;

(iv)

Its extent: the generality of its application;

(v)

Its Aspects: the various manners in which that Will may apply itself to the acts and circumstances which are its objects.

(vi)

Its force: the motives it relies on for enabling it to produce the effect it aims at and the laws which it relies on for bringing such motives into play known as CORRABORATIVE APPENDAGES.

(vii)

Its Expression: the nature of the signs by which the Will of the sovereign may be known for example, the statutes, cases, decrees, edicts, ordinances etc.

(viii) Its Remedial Appendages: other laws than the corraborative appendages, for example those which are designed to alleviate the law. This wider definition anticipated Austin's formulation on Law based on, a political society sovereign, subjects, commands and laws which are found in analytical jurisprudence.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

The jurisprudence of Bentham was basically Censorial Jurisprudence. It dealt with the Science of Legislation, the "ought" Bentham was definite that the sovereign was the Source of Law. Other sources of laws he termed illegal mandate, the act of issuing such mandate was illegal and an offence.

Methods through which the sovereign issued Law: (i)

Conception: When the law is given by the sovereign himself.

(ii)

Tacit Approval, judicial orders executive and administrative or military orders.

(iii)

Adoption, the order of a father to children; husband to wife. These are also termed as Quasi commands.

Bentham divided Laws as follows: (i)

Laws addressed to subjects - Laws in Populum (subditos).

(ii)

Laws of transcendental nature addressed to the sovereign/foreign: - Laws in Principiem: These are of two kinds (a) Pacta regalia - those which affect the sovereign himself (b)

Recommendatory Mandates These refer to the future sovereign (Constitution).

Whether or not the Sovereign could be Controlled by Laws? In your study of Natural Law principles during the classical and Revolutionary any period you noted that the basic question was why should the sovereign observe laws addressed to himself? The sovereign was absolute in the eyes of Hobbes and Hume. But could be controlled in the eyes of Locke and Rousseau. In the former philosophers it was impossible to control the sovereign (he was an uncommanded commander) in the latter the objectives of the institution of sovereignty "Life, liberty, property and pursuit of happiness" were not only controls but also a means for the community to enforce laws controlling the sovereign. Thus in the eyes of Bentham, it was absolutely necessary to have laws controlling the sovereign

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

authority for the pursuit of maximum happiness. The sovereign does not exist alone. The scales of Pains and pleasure would be used to determine which laws to control the sovereign. Bentham maintained that there were FOUR SANCTIONS to see to it that the sovereign did abide by the laws: Religious Political Popular Physical The physical and political sanctions cannot control the sovereign in reality. Only the Religious and popular sanction. These could compel the sovereign to obey his own law. In case he failed to do so he could be forced by a FOREIGN STATE to observe his own laws because of the understanding or contracts or treaties existing between the two sovereign states. The sovereign's guarantor is another sovereign authority. [When we deal with Hans Kelsen's Pure Theory of Law - the notion Recognition under revolutionary situations in international law becomes very important].

THE FORCE BEHIND SANCTIONS To ensure the administration of the Greatest Happiness for the greatest number. Bentham pointed out that the sovereign to increase pleasure would use rewards i.e. the ALLURING MOTIVES e.g. if you don't do a.b.c then you will be given x.y.z. If they are in the form of a pain then that sanction is called a COERCIVE MOTIVE or punishment. The sovereign will rely on how he can enforce the two motives. He would do so mainly by using the POLITICAL or LEGAL SANCTION. The sovereign has to create a political machinery. To show whether he would give rewards for certain acts or punish some of them he must do so by way of NOTICE. This can be given by himself or by a judge or the legislature commanding a judge to carry out certain measures. The sovereign has to use both Rewards and Punishments in enforcing his commands. But though rewards are the best method, he cannot use them as a long term method since resources to give rewards to people are limited.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

Therefore it is better to use Pain or Punishment as the force behind commands. Why? (a)

It is easier to administer pain to another than pleasure.

(b)

The power of administering pleasure depends on the law in general than in particular.

(c)

The scale of pleasure is limited while the scale of pain is unlimited.

(d)

The sources of pleasure are few while those of pain are inexhaustable.

(e)

Any law which administers pleasures is bound to administer pain to others.

(f)

Rewards are insufficient when applied to acts of negative nature.

Therefore the solution is obvious that in any commission of crime a person must be forced by the sovereign's commands through COERCIVE METHODS. Bentham came out with a rather contradictory proposal by saying that one can assure pleasure to the greatest number by using COERCION. Since one cannot use rewards, it is obvious those who have resources are already protected.

The FUNCTION OF LAW Can be covered in four objectives: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

To To To To

provide subsistence aim at abundance encourage equality maintain security.

The fourth category of the function of law gives Bentham's analysis a lopsided feature as a reformer. It is impossible to assure equality while one defends property already acquired. Of course to Bentham this was not a contradiction, since in a bourgeois conception of society man exists as a DUAL being: Man exists as a citizen with a community rights assured to exist e.g. equality before the law. From this one gets the law of equality that prohibited both the rich and the poor

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

equally not to sleep in diches and beg in streets. Man also exists as a Private Individual competing and inequality assumed to be obvious. This DUALITY underlies the distinction between Public and Private law. In Bentham's view the law was to change and overcome the inadequacies of the then existing common law - based on Precedents which were slow and uncertain.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

Bentham in Practice: Through the Principle of Utility reform could be initiated and the only method which could surpass the slow legal system was CODIFICATION. The code had to be very consistent, simple and rational. It had to encompass all possible situations, it would need no school to explain it (here Bentham was wrong!) (Principles of Morals and Legislation Vol. III p. 209). There was no need for legal interpretation the judge would only apply the law as it is because the code would be simple direct and school children would have to memorise as catechism. Through the code nations would be brought together by having similar laws (Experience of Treaties in International Law). This Bentham projected for a Universal legislation. (In the field of International Law/Trade Treaty Practice). Bentham's idea of simplicity of a code - was aimed at the gang of LAWYERS who had made Medieval law a complex and unnecessary system. In denying that laws could be interpreted by Courts he was taking away the supreme role judges had played in the evolution of the common law and Equity. The Formal Style was to supersede the Grand Style in Stare Decisis. Bentham's suggested reforms in (i)

the Law of Evidence - to do away with the hearsay rule by accepting any evidence since the target was to catch criminals. In admissibility excluded vital sources of information at times;

(ii)

the Penal Law - crimes were to be reduced to acts which can be regained by compensation.

Bentham in this respect was influenced by Montesquieu and Beccarria. But Bentham was the first legal scholar to treat this subject separately. He emphasised the object of punishment to be to reform the criminal and therefore supported preventive punishment and not "punishing" justice. He advocated for a Penal Code where all offences would be classified in terms of genus and species. Punishment for all such offences would be provided.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

He showed that criminal responsibility was not similar in that for the same offence. Circumstances and intentions might be different. He opposed Capital Punishment as being inhuman. He advocated for the strengthening of the POLICE not only for apprehending criminals but for preventing crime. He also encouraged the system of informers whereby an accomplice who brought others to justice should be pardoned (The case of Mattaka etc.) He suggested for an elaborate, but human - prison system which he called the PANOPTION. With the Code Bentham thought one would have had a Grand System.

Appraisal of Bentham: Bentham pointed the way to reform in Law. The major aspects of his recommendations have been pointed out by A.V. Dicey in Law and Opinion in England in the 19th Century. (a)

Legislation must be a SCIENCE. It must be clear and simple. Law has to be codified and only through that method reform can be carried out i.e. commands of the sovereign are only clear through statute law. The judiciary's role was to apply it as it is.

(b)

The legislator must aim at creating the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Utility must be central to all legislation. The individual member is the centre to the creation of law - the Laissez faire - philosophy of free competition in the economy was thus central to legislation.

(c)

Law was to lay down the rules of the GAME of life, it was therefore necessary to clear out all moral interpretation in law and make it value free. It was a belief in empiricism, the foundation of positivism.

Effects of Bentham's Suggestions: (a)

Transfer of political power from traditional rulers to a class which was supposed to be large and intelligent enough to identify its own

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

interests with the interests of the greatest number. By Reform Acts of 1832 the Landed Gentry which was in consortium with the rising bourgeois class from 17th century came to power. There followed: (aa) Repeal of Navigation Laws 1846-49 (bb) Repeal of the corn Laws 1846-47. (b)

Promotion of Humanitarianism based on Liberal Philosophy anti slavery, anti feudal movements etc. New Poor Laws Whipping of Women 1820 The Pillory (1816-1837) Hanging in Chain 1834. For the interests of certain people Bentham wrote: “Legislation is a state of Warfare. Political mischief is the enemy: the legislator is the commander; the moral and religious sanctions his allies, punishment and rewards the forces he has under his command. Punishments his regular standing forces, rewards an occasional subsidiary force too weak to act alone; ... The mechanical branch of legislation ... the art of tactics direct legislation a formal attack made with the main body of his forces in the open field; indirect legislation a secret plan of connected and long concerted operation to be executed in the way of strategem .... “ (Bentham: Limits of Jurisprudence Defined at p. 288).

(c)

The ideal element in their programme was that the state was assumed to exist. It was not seen as a historical phenomenon but rather an obvious institution.

(d)

Law was seen to be a value free, law ignored History and society.

(e)

The bourgeois demanded for Human Rights, democracy, and widening up franchise - all these were realised in a limited form.

(f)

Analytical jurisprudence created a way for the Study of Law as an academic discipline. Rights and duties which the state was responsible for were analysed as they had never been analysed before. From that

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

time law became a study of consistent application. Textbook writers on Contract, Tort, Criminal Law, Procedural Laws, Property Laws began to emerge and enrich knowledge of humanity on law.

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Dr. Tenga’s Jurisprudence Lectures UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY BENTHAM [TU 2008]

_

Bibliography

Books: 1.

Sipula Kabanjes LL.M. Dissertation

2. Austin, J., Lectures in Jurisprudence, 5th Edn. R. Campbell, John Murray, 1885) Chs. 1-6. 3.

Id The Province of Jurisprudence Determined (ed., H.L.A. Hart, Weidenfeld & Nicholson 1954.

4.

Hart, H.L.A., The Concept of Law, (Oxford Clarendon Press, 1961) Chs. 2-4.

5. Raz, The Concept of A Legal System, (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1970, 2nd Edn. 1980) Ch. 12. 6.

Dworkin, R., Taking Rights Seriously (Duckworth, 1971).

7. MacCormic, N., Press, 1978).

Legal Reasoning and Legal Theory, (Oxford: Clarendon

Periodicals: 1. Hart, H.L.A., "Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals" 71 Harv. L.R. (1957-58) 593. 2. 629.

Summers, R.S. "Professor H.L.A. Hart's Concept of Law" (1963) Durham L.J.

3. _

Id "The New Analytical Jurists" 41 NLULR (1966) 681 excepts in Lloyd. CHAPTER V

19

UTILITARIANISM - Lecture Notes [RWT].pdf

[Law of Three Stages – Wikipedia]. Natural Laws could be applied to society through sociology, Comte argued. Any. attempt to describe or find the causes of things was useless and could be left to. Theology and Philosophy not to the Science of Positivism. Page 3 of 19. UTILITARIANISM - Lecture Notes [RWT].pdf.

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Lecture Notes in Computer Science
This is about twice the data generated in 1999, given an increasing ... the very same pre-processing tools and data have been used by all of them. We chose.

Lecture Notes in Computer Science
Abstract. In this paper, we present an approach for detecting and classifying attacks in computer networks by using neural networks. Specifically, a design of an intruder detection system is presented to protect the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)