UNIT 12 MORPHOLOGY: SOME MORE BASIC CONCEPTS Structure Objectives Introduction Different Types of Affixes: Inflectional vs. Derivational Compounding Conversion Morphophonology Let Us Sum U p Key Words Some Useful Books Answers

12.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Distinguish inflectional affixes from derivational affixes; Identify compounds; Recognize cases of conversion; and Recognize the difference between morpheme, morphs and allomorphs.

12.1 INTRODUCTION In Unit 11. we discussed two important questions of.morphology: What are the criteria for dividing words into their constituent parts, i.e. morphemes, and what are the rules for combining morphemes into words? In discussing these questions, we introduced a number of concepts which are basic to morphology, e.g., morpheme, free morpheme vs. bound morpheme, affix, stem, root, etc. We applied these concepts when dividing the words into their parts as well as when telling you how the parts (i.e. morphemes) were combined into words. In this unit, we propose to discuss the following topics:

different type of affixes: inflectional vs derivational compounding conversion or formation of new words without any change in the shape of words, and the relationship between morphemes and their representations in the spoken form.

12.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF AFFIXES: INFLECTIONAL VS. DERIVATIONAL We will note that affixes can be divided into two basic types: grammatical and lexical. Grammatical affixes are those affixes which are attached to words in accordance with the rules of grammar in order to relate them to other words in the phrase, clause, sentence, etc. For example, a rule of English grammar says

that we cannot simply put two nouns together to create a phrase. Ram hook does not make a grammatical unit. One way of turning this sequence into a grammatical unit is to add the suffix - .s to Rum: Ram book is a grammatically constructed nouns phrase. The 'apostrophe -s', as the suffix is commonly called, is a grammatical device for relating two nouns in a relationship which gives the meaning of 'possession'. A similar statement can be made about verbs with the third person singular present morpheme, which we described as a grammatical morpheme in Unit 1 1. We can, therefore, classify the possessive 's and the third person singular present -s as grammatical morphemes, or grammatical affixes. Other grammatical affixes in English are the plural suffix -s, the past tense -ed morpheme, the perfect -en or -ed, the continuous -ing, which are all used with verbs, and the comparative -er and the superlative -est, which are used with adjectives and adverbs. Grammatical affixes are also called inflectional aftixes. 'Inflection' is the traditional term for the change in the form of a word that shows its grammatical function. All the remaining affixes of English are called lexical affixes. The term 'lexical' comes from the word 'lexis', which means 'vocabulary' or the wordstore of a language. The reason for calling these affixes 'lexical' is that they help us form new words, or new vocabulary items. By 'new' we do not mean that they have not been used by anyone else before and that we are the first ones to coin them, but that when they were first coined by someone, they simply added that particular affix to an already existing word and got a 'new' word, i.e., they did not produce an entirely new word. Of course, writers and speakers sometimes do produce new words in this way which may not have been used by anyone before, and may not be used very commonly afterwards. For example, describing a person whose hat had been blown away in the wind, an author may refer to his 'hatless state', a person asked to name the hour when he would turn up for an appointment, visit, etc. may say 'Tennish', meaning 'Around ten o'clock', and so on. It is a characteristic of lexical affixes that they can be used creatively in this way to form new words. Some of these new words, when they fulfil a felt need, become permanent additions to the language. Notice that in contrast to the words created by the addifion of lexical affixes, the words formed by the addition of grammatical affixes are not considered new words. A dictionary, for example, does not list work, works, working, worked separately: they are all listed under the word work. Similarly, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs are not listed separately. It is assumed that these forms can be created, whenever required, by applying the appropriate rules of grammar. The word is the same, but it has different grammatical forms. Whatever change in meaning is involved can be attributed to the rule of grammar (e.g., the plural rule produces the meaning 'more than one'). By contrast, words created by the addition of lexical affixes are listed separately in a dictionary, since they are treated as separate words. Words with lexical affixes prcsent LIS with a lexical choice. For example, we can form the words childish and childlike by adding the lexical affixes -ish and -like respectively to the root 'child'. Whether we want to use the word childish or childlike in speaking of someone's appearance, behaviour, etc. depends on whether we wish to speak disapprovingly or appreciatively of him or her. The difference in the meaning of childish and childlike, does not come from any grammatical

rule. That i s the reason childish and childlike are listed separately in a dictionary. We must learn their meanings as we learn the meaning o f child when we learn English. The point illustrated by this example i s this: lexical affixes do not change the meaning o f the words in a regular way whereas grammatical affixes do. The addition o f the plural affix -s to a common noun always adds the same meaning ('more than one') to the noun, but the addition o f the verb-forming suffix -ize to adjectives and nouns adds different meanings to different words, e.g.. moclernix means 'to make modern'. .symbolize means 'to act as a symbol o f . ho.~pitulizemeans 'to put in a hospital', die.selize means 'to convert to diesel-engined power', and so on. For this reason, these words must be treated as different words and listed separately in a dictionary. 'The distinction between grammatical and lexical aftixes i s a basic and an important one. They are generally known as inflectional and derivational affixes, respectively. The word ~ierivutionulimplies that the words formed by the attachment o f lexical affixes are derived from other words, and derivational affixes are those affixes which help in this derivation. The following diagram presents this information:

Affixes

'The study o f morphology i s divided into two main branches: the study o f inflectional affixes is called inflectional morphology and the study o f derivational aftixes is called derivational morphology. There are a few other important characteristics o f intlectional and derivational aftixes in English which may be summarised as follows:

i.

Intlectional affixes normally do not change the part o f speech of the stem. A noun to which a plural affix is added still remains a noun; a verb to which the past tense affix is added still remains a verb, and so on. Derivational affixes may or may not change the part o f speech o f the stem. Thus child > childish, childlike involves a change in the part o f speech but obey > di,robey, build > rebuild, etc. do not, Derivatiotial prefixes, in particular. do not affect the part o f speech o f the stern.

ii.

Infle'ctional affixes o f English are all suffixes; derivational aftixes occur both as prefixes and suffixes.

iii.

Inflectional affixes are attached to a stem after all the derivational affixes have already been attached, and usually only one inflectional suffix is attached to a word. Therefore, once an intlectional affix has been attached to a word. no other affix can be added to it. As a result, the inflectional affix forms the outer layer in the structure o f a word, while derivational affixes form the inner layers, e.g., in thc word deatubilized the inflectional affix is the past tense suffix - ed It i s added last o f all to the verb stem destabilize-, which is buTlt up by the addition o f the derivational affixes -ize and de- as follows; stable > stabilize > destabilize.

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Check Your progress 1

I. I.

..

11.

iii. iv. v.

2.

The following are pairs of related words. Which of these do you think will be listed as separate entries in a dictionary? Give reasons. sleep, sleeps modem, modernize boy, boys beauty,beautify sweet. sweeter Given below in the table are pairs of words derived from the same root by using different affixes. Fill in the root, the affixes and the meaning of the words in the relevant columns. Look up the meaning of these words in your dictionary in case you are not sure.

la. I b. 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b. 4a. 4b. 5a. 5b. Each group below contains a root and some affixes. Combine the morphemes of each group to form a word. Specify the order in which you attach the affixes. For each affix (prefix and suffix), also specify whether it is derivational or inflectional. Remember that inflectional affixes are always the last affixes to be attached. Make all necessary adjustments in spelling: -s, obey, dis- ................... ........ .................................... en-, -ing, code ....................................................................

.................................................................... -ly, friend, -est ................................................................... host, -es, -ess ..................................................................... -ify, simple, -es .................................................................. able, dis-, ity, -es ................................................................ -er, cater, -s... ..................................................................... -ize, im-, mortal, -ed ............................................................. respect, -ly, -ful, dis- ............................................................ build, re-, -ing

12.3 COMPOUNDING One of the criteria for dividing words into their constituent parts that we described in Unit 1 I was the following:

If a word is wholly made up of two or more parts which also occur independently as words, we can divide the word into parts identical with the independently occurring words. Consider the following words: Afternoon, airtight, airworthy, earthquake, pickpocket, turncoat

Each of these words is made up of two morphemes which also occur as words independently, e.g., after and noon, air and tight, and so on. Compounding may be said to be a process of forming 'new' roots, since inflectional and derivational affixes can be attached to the forms resulting from compounding, e.g., afternoons, airworthiness, etc. To distinguish such roots from simple roots, we call them compound roots. The complex forms derived from compound roots by attaching inflectional or derivational affixes to them are sometimes called compound-complex words. All the examples of compounds that we have cited above are written as single words, i.e., without any space between the parts. However, not all compounds are written as single words: some are written with a hyphen (small dash) between the parts, and some are written as two words, i.e., with a space between the parts. For example, Written with a hyphen : Written with a space :

air-conditioning, brother-in-luw, doublecroar, man-eater, mother-tongue. air raid; bluck market, jancy dress, ground stafl rock garden

With some compounds, there is a considerable amount of variation and they may be written without space, with space, and with a hyphen, e.g., birdcage, bird cage, or birdcage. In speech, compounds are generally characterized by the fact that the stress is on the first constituent, i.e., the stressed syllable of the first constituent is pronounced with greater force than anything else in the compound. As a result, we can sometimes distinguish a compound from a non-compound by this feature, e.g., darkroom, with stress on both constituents is a phrase referring to a room which is dark. However, this feature is not a characteristic of all compounds, e.g., black murket and,juncy circss are pronounced with the main stress on the second constituent. It is thus clear that we cannot identify compounds by the way they are written or spoken. How then do we know when a word is a compound? This question is important since a colnpound often consists of 'a noun i- a noun' or 'an adjective i- a noun', and such combinations can also occur as phrases. We have just seen the example of a curk room (phrase) vs. u darkroom (compound), Another example is a grcJcn houae (phrase: a house that is painted green) and a greenhouse (compound: a glass house for the protection of plants). Similarly, common man is a phrase, common room is a compound; hnbv girl is a phrase but baby-sitter is a compound. How do we decide this? The criterion is simple and it is based on meaning. The meaning of a compound is not a sum of the meanings of its constituent parts. That is why the compound durkroom does not simply mean a room which is dark. The meaning of a compound word is something different from the meaning its parts make. We express this by saying that its meaning is idiomatic. The

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meaning of darkroom, viz, 'a room for photographic processing' is an idiomatic meaning, not a literal meaning of its parts. This is what shows that a compound is a single unit. The one-word character of compound words is seen specially when affixes are attached to them. Though the affix is actually attached to only one element (usually the last one but sometimes also to others, e.g., brothers-in-law), it is understood as applying to the whole compound. For example, in the word black marketeer, the suffix -eer is taken to be attached to black market and not to market only.

Check Your Progress 2 1.

Consult a dictionary and firrd out the meanings of the following compounds:

a, b. c. d. e. f.

bedclothes white paper brain-drain blackbox kill-joy turncoat

2.

Show the structure of the following compound-complex words by separating the compound roots and the affix:

12.4 CONVERSION In discussing the differences between inflectional and derivational affhes, we mentioned in Section 12.1 that derivational affixes help us to create 'new' words. Since these 'new' words can be stems for other affixes (inflectional or derivational), we can also say that derivational affixes help us produce new stems, On the other hand, inflectional affixes do not normally produce new stems, since once an inflectional affix is attached to a stem, no other affix can be attached to if. Derivational affixes produce new stems by changing the form of the word. For example, we produce a new stem from the verb play by attaching -er to it. Player is a 'new' word and can be a stem, e.g., in the word players. Sometimes, however, we can change the part of speech of a word without changing its form. For example, the word carpet is a noun, but it is used as a verb in the following sentence without any change of form: How much would it cost to carpet this room?

Verbs like carpet, stone. tahle, etc., can be derived from the corresponding nouns without any affix. 'They are, therefore, said to be cases of derivation by the zcro affix. How do we know that it is the verb carpet that is derived from the noun carpet by the zero affix and not the noun carpet that is derived from the verb? In other words, what are the criteria for treating one of the two words related by the zero affix to be the source or the base? Three criteria are generally used:

..

11.

The first criterion is meaning. We generally identify a word as a noun if it denotes a person or an object: we identify it as a verb if it denotes action, and so on. In a pair of words related by the zero affix we can generally tell which meaning is primary and which derived. Carpet, stone, tahle, etc., are primarily nouns as they denote objects, hence we regard the verb to be derived. On the other hand. in pairs like attack (verb) and attack (noun), help (verb) and help (noun), laugh (verb) and laugh (noun), etc., we can tell that the base is the verb since the words primarily denote actions. The second criterion is form. For example, some suffixes occur typically with nouns, others with verbs. The suffixes -tion, -ion, -ure are typically noun endings. Hence when words containing such endings are used as verbs, we can say that the noun form is basic, the verb form derived. Consider, for example, the word partition in the following sentence: They purtitioned the room and converted the front part into an office. The prefix re-. on the other hand, is a typical verb prefix. Hence in a pair containing a noun and a verb with the prefix re- the noun is considered to be derived from the verb, e.g., recall (noun) and recaN (verb): re-run (noun) and re-run (verb).

iii.

-['hethird criterion is historical. If the criteria of meaning and form do not help us, we can turn to the history of the language and try to determine which use came first. For example, the noun worship has existed in English for about 600 years, but the verb is even older. This criterion is, however, not very reliable as historical records are not easily available for all words. We can present the above information in a diagram form:

Meaning

form

historical origin

Check Your Progress 3

I.

The following words can occur both as nouns and verbs. Determine whether they are cases of conversion from noun to verb, or from verb to noun:

a.

attempt .............................................................................

b.

bottle ...............................................................................

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c.

catalogue..........................................................................

d.

floor.. ..........................................................................

e.

love.. ...............................................................................

g.

puncture ...........................................................................

I.

skin ...............................................................................

j.

show-off...........................................................................

2.

Find out which af the following words can be used as both noun and verb? Look up thkir meaning in the dictionary. See if the derived word is used in an idiomatic meaning, different from the primary word. corner floor find person read catch throw middle

12.5 MORPHOPHONOLOGY In Unit 1 1, Section 1 1.2.2, we stated that morphemes were units of grammar and that they were abstract. This means that morphemes cannot be pronounced. One reason for considering morphemes to be abstract was that the same morpheme (p.g., 'plural number') was represented by different spoken forms ( / IZ 1, J z / or / s I), and we could not identify the 'plural number' morpheme with any one of these forms. As we stated in Section 11.2.2, most morphemes are identical with parts of words. For example, the four morphemes in the word representations are re-. present-, ation and the plural number. Their spoken forms are sometimes called morphs to distiqguish them from morphemes. Morphemes are abstract grammatical or lexical units; morphs are their representations, or realizations, in the spoken form. Three of the morphs in the word representations are direct, one-to-one, representations of the morphemes. These are /re 1 , 1 prlzent / and /elJan 1. The fourth morph / z 1, however, is only one of the representation of the 'plural number' morpheme. This morpheme, as stated above, is also represented by other morphs. For example, in the word hats / hats 1, it is represented by / s / ; in the word horses /ha::slz 1, it is represented by / IZ 1; in the word menlmenl, it is represented by the change of the stem-vowel which we represent as the morph / a > e 1; in the (plural noun sheep, it is represented by the zero morph, and so on. When diffetent morphs represent the same morpheme, we call them allomorphs. Thus / 12 1, z / , / s / , /=>el and 'zero' are allomorphs of the plural morpheme.

Why should different allomorphs represent the same morphemes? Why can't the same morph represent a morpheme everywhere? There are two kinds of reasons for this: First, there are reasons which have to do with pronunciation. In English, an -s suffix occurring with words ending in voiceless sounds like / p, t, k, f 1, is generally pronounced as / s 1. Being a voiceless sound, 1s / is more natural after voiceless sounds. After voiced sounds like / r~,b, d, v, m, n, I / and the vowel sounds, the -s suffix is pronounced as / z 1, which is a voiced sound and more natural after voiced sounds. In other words, the occurrence of the allomorphs / rz 1, / z 1, and / s / is conditioned by phonological factors, or factors having to do with pronunciation. They are therefore, said to be phonologically conditioned allomorphs. Other phonologically conditioned allomorphs occur in English with the past tense morpheme, the third person singular present morpheme, the possessive morpheme etc. The second reason for the occurrence of allomorphs is that, for historical reasons, some words behave in an irregular way. Thus, while most nouns form plurals by taking a suffix, some nouns (like man, woman, child, mouse, sheep, etc.) do it in a different way; while most verbs form past tense by a -d affix, some verbs (like get, run, sing. weep, etc.) do it by changing the stem-vowel, and so on. This is a peculiarity of these words and there is no rule which can tell us why these words behave in this way. Such words give rise to special allomorphs like the replacive allomorph, in which one or more sounds of the stem are replaced (e.g. / ze>e / in man > men), and the zero allomorph, in which the stem remains unchanged, and so on. Allomorphs of these two types are said to be morphologically conditioned allomorphs. A typical grammatically conditioned allomorph in French is the use of le (definite article used before masculine singular nouns), la (definite article used before feminine singular nouns) and les (definite article used before plural nouns). (We shall look at these in greater detail in 13.3.4.) The following diagram summarises the above information:

Phonologically conditioned

morphologically conditioned

grammatically conditioned

The study of how morphemes of a language are represented by morphs and allomorphs is called its morphophonology. The study of the morphophonology of a language-requiresa knowledge of its phonetics and phonology, i.e., of its sounds and sound patterns. You are therefore, advised to master the knowledge of English phonetics and phonology well (see Blocks I 2) so that you can understand its morphophonology.

Check Your Progress 4 I.

Identify the morphemes in each of the following words. Then identify the morph which represents each of the morphemes:

a. b.

bets / bets/ pens / pen21

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c. d. e. f.

books Ibuksl Ram's 1ra:mz I leaves /li:vz, houses Ihauzizl

2.

The past tense. morpheme in English has three phonologically conditioned allomorphs. They are illustrated in the following set of words. Find out how these words are pronounced and then identify the allomorphs. Findlly, state the phonological conditioning. Remember that It/ is a voicelkss sound and /dl a voiced one:

a.

! .............................................................................. kicked ............................................................................. hissed ............................................................................. rubbed ............................................................................ plugged ........................................................................... waited ........... .'................................................................. raided ............................................................................. I dozed ..............................................................................

I

slipped

b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

12.6 LET US SUM UP I n this unit, we have made the following major points:

iii.

iv.

vi. vii.

...

VIII.

ix. X.

xi. xii.

Affixes are inflectional or derivational. Inflectional affixks are those affixes which are required to be attached to words by sbme rule of grammar and which perform some grammatical function. Derivational affihes are attached to words to produce 'new' words. These words add to our lexical choice and are listed separately in the dictionary. Inflectional affixes change the meaning of the stem to which they are attached in a regular way; derivational affixes affect the meaning of different sets of words in different ways. Inflectional affixes never change the part of speech of the words to which they are attached; derivational affixes often do so. English inflectional affixes are all suffixes. Inflectional affikes are attached to words after all the derivational affixes have been attached to them. Usually, only one infledtional aftix is attached to a word. Compounding is the process of combining two or more free morphemes in a single word. When cornpound roots occur with inflectional or derivational affixes in a word we call it a compound-complex word. Compounds cannot be always recognized from the way they are written or pronounced. They can, however. be recognized by their idiomatic meanings. 'New' words are also created by changing the part of speech of a word without adding dn affix to it, or changing its shape in any other way.

xiii. xiv.

xv. xiv.

Such cases are said to be cases of 'conversion', or cases of derivation by the zero-affix. The 'base' word in a case of conversion is recognized either by its pritnary meaning or by its form. Morphemes are represented in the spoken form by morphs. When the addition of a morpheme is represented without any change in the form of the stem, it is said to be represented by a zero morph. 'The different morphs representing the same morpheme are said to be allomorphs. Allomorphs of a morpheme are phonologically, morphologically, or grammatically conditioned. 'The study of how morphemes are represented by morphs and allomorphs is called morphophonology.

12.7 KEY WORDS an affix that is attached to a word to perform some grammatical function in accordance with some rule of grammar. Derivational Affix: an affix that is attached to a word to produce a 'new' word, or a new stem. Compounding: the process of making a 'new' word or root, by combining two or more free morphemes. Compound-Complex Word:a word containing a compound root and one or more affixes. Conversion: the process of creating a 'new' word by changing its part of speech without adding any affix to it or changing its form in any other way. Morph: the physical spoken form which realizes a morpheme; it is represented as a phoneme, a sequence of phoneme;, a change of phonemes, or as zero. When two or more morphs represent the same Allomorph: morpheme, they are said to be allomorphs of the morpheme. When the addition of a morpheme is represented Replacive Allomorph: in a word by the replacement of a morph, it is called a replacive allomorph. Zero Allomorph: when the addition of a morpheme to a stem leads to no change in the form of the stem, the morpheme is said to be represented by a zero morph. the study of how morphemes are represented by Morphophonology : morphs and allomorphs. Inflectional Affix:

12.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS Brown, E.K. and Miller, J.E. (1980). Syntaw: A Linguistic Introduction to Sentence Structure. (Chapters 6-1 I). London: Hutchinson. Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English, (Appendix I ) . London: Longman. Radford, A. et al. (1999). Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

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12.9 ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1 1.

Words in pairs (ii) and (iv) will be listed in the dictionary as they are different words and related through attachment of derivational afiises; the remaining pairs are related through the attachment of inflectional affixes.

dis + obey (Deriv.); disobey + s (Infl.) en + code (Deriv.); encode(e) + ing (Infl.) re + build (Deriv.); rebuild + ing (Infl.) friend + ly (Deriv.); friendl(i) + est (Infl.) host + ess (Deriv.); hostess + es (Infl.) simple (e) + ify (Deriv.); simplif (i) + cs (Infl.) able + ity (Deriv.); dis + ability (Deriv.); disabilit(i) + es (Infl.) cater + er (Deriv.); caterer + s (Infl.) im + mortal (Deriv.); immartal + ize (Deriv.); imtnortalize + d (lnfl.) respect + ful (Deriv.); dis + respectful (Deriv.); disrespectful + ly (Deriv.)

Check Your Progress 2 1.

Students are adiised t~ consult a dictionary.

Check Your Progress 3

Morphology: Some More Basic Concepts

2.

Except for d) and h), all can be used as both noun and verb. Look up the meaning in the dictionary.

Check Your Progress 4 1.

a. b. c. d. e.

f. 2.

Morphemes: bet, -s. Morphs : / bet /, / s I. Morphemes: pen, -s Morphs : / pen 1, / z/ Morphemes: book, -s Morphs: / buk/ , / s / Morphemes: Ram-, possessive morpheme Morphs ; / ra:m/, / z / Morphemes: leave, -s Morphs: /li:v/. / z / Morphemes: house, -s Morphs: /haus/, / iz /

The three allomorphs o f the past tense morpheme are It/,/dl, and /!dl. Phonological conditioning: 'The allomorph It/ occurs after stems ending in all voiceless sounds cxcept / t /; the allomorph Id/ occurs after stems ending in all voiced sound except / dl: / ~d/ occurs after stems ending in / t/ or / dl.