UNIT 1 ORGANISATION AND STRUCTURE OF VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS Contents 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Aims and Objectives Introduction Weber's Concept of 'Bureaucracy' and Formal Organisations Main. Perspectives of Organisations Important Approaches : Classification of Organisations Structure of Voluntary Organisations Processes Affecting Structure of Voluntary Organisations Let Us Sum Up Suggested Readings and References Model Answers

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The main aim of this unit is to acquaint you with important aspects related to the organisation and structure of voluntary organisations. We have explained Weber's concept of an ideal type of bureaucracy; and the main perspectives and important approaches crucial to the understanding of nature, form and structure of organisations. We have furnished a broad base of knowledge so as to enable you to comprehend the organisational character and main aspects of the structure of voluntary organisations. After that you will learn about the basic nature, form and essential characteristics of the structure of voluntary organisations. We have described the important elements of an ideal egalitarian structure in consonance with the true essence of a voluntary organisation. We have also explained the basic constituents of a general operational structure of voluntary organisations. Discussed are also some relevant processes of organisation formation which critically influence and transform the structure of voluntary organisations. After studying this unit, you should be able to : understand Weber's conceptualization and attendant features of bureaucracy; explain the main perspectives and important approaches relevant for analysing the nature, character, form and structure of organisations; depict the organisational form and nature of the structure of voluntary organisations; identify the important elements of an ideal egalitarian structure reflecting the true essence of voluntary organisations; describe basic features of general operational structure of voluntary organisations; and assess 'the relevance of some important processes of organisation formation which effect and transform the structure of voluntary organisations.

1.1 INTRODUCTION The process of 'organisation-formation' and the consequent nature of structure of voluntary organisations - like all other formal organisations - determines their functioning, internal authority-relations, efficiency, success and achievement of goals. A small voluntary organisation may function without a well defined structure, mostly on the basis of informal relations that exist among its members. However, with growth in size and membership, expansion of operations, geographical spread and so

Basic Features of Organisations

on, the process of 'organisation-formation' takes place. The structure of a voluntary organisation acquires most of the bureaucratic features somewhat similar to formal or complex organisations. Though informal relations and mechanisms continue to play a vital role in their functioning, the structure of large voluntary organisations displays an increasing tendency to incorporate features characteristic of a 'bureaucracy' for their smooth and efficient functioning. At the very outset, we will explain to you Weber's concept of 'bureaucracy'. This concept is very important for understanding the structure of modem organisations including voluntary organisations. While making distinction between 'power' and 'authority', Max Weber characterised organisations in terms of structures of authorityrelations. We will describe the nature and characteristics of 'charismatic-authority', 'traditional authority' and rational-legal system of authority, and their manifestation in various kinds of organisations. Further, you will learn about the basic features associated with an ideal conception of bureaucracy. Such bureaucratic features are manifest (in varying degrees) in all formal organisations. After that we will describe the basic aspects of main perspectives employed to understand the structure and functioning of modem organisations, viz., the rational system model, the natural system model and the open system model. Basically these perspectives are broad frameworks which guide specific approaches to the study of organisations. You will learn about important approaches based on assumptions such as 'primarybeneficiary', 'membership and notion of non-profit', 'power and compliance', 'totalinstitution', technology and related matters. These approaches are crucial in understanding the basic features, internal arrangement of authority-relations, characteristics of participants (salaried employees, paid workers, volunteers, for instance) purpose/goals and other features which determine the overall form and structure of formal organisations. The assumptions inherent in these approaches are also crucial to the classification of formal organisations. For instance, you will be able to sltructurally differentiate between organisations such as business concerns, enterprises, mutual-benefit organisations, service organisations, non-profit organisations and voluntary organisations, to mention some. Next, we will describe the basic organisational form and structural aspects of voluntary organisations. Form and structure of small voluntary organisations is determined by informal relations which exist among the members. The structure of small voluntary organisations is such that they are able to maintain internal democracy. Minimum of bureaucratic procedures are required or followed in making decisions and their subsequent implementation. As social structures, large voluntary organisations tend to acquire distinct structural features of formal leadership, hierarchy of official positions, division of labour, specialized activities and rules and regulations. You will also learn about the basic features of an 'ideal' egalitarian structure envisaged in consonance with the essence of voluntary organisations. Such a conception of an ideal structure of a voluntary organisation is conducive for internal democracy, functional freedoms,, collective will, participatory decision making, conformity with shared values, absence of hierarchical order and moral authority. Such a pure and ideal egalitarian structure has a comparative reference value for understanding the structural features of voluntary organisations operating in real life situations in society. Most importantly, you will find a detailed description of the external form and basic general features of an operational structure of voluntary organisations, viz,. objectives, constitution, membership, general body, executive council and governing body. Notwithstanding certain variations in nomenclature, knowledge of these general structural features will enable you to understand the actual functioning of voluntary organisations. Lastly, we will acquaint you with some important processes of organisation formation which influence and change the structure of voluntary organisations. You will learn that organisational processes such as formalisation, emergence of minority

rule, goal displacement and goal succession significantly alter and effect substantial transformation in the structure of voluntary organisations.

1.2 WEBER'S CONCEPT OF 'BUREAUCRACY' AND FORMAL ORGANISATIONS Formal organisations are an integral part of modem societies. In traditional societies, most activities are organised around primary relations prevalent in family, clan, ethnic group and community. However, modern societies are dominated by various formal and complex organisations based on secondary relations. A formal organisation basically refers to a deliberately constituted group of individuals that strives to pursue certain values, aims or goals in society. The most prevalent form of formal organisation in any modern society is the bureaucracy. While depicting the basic features of bureaucracy, Max Weber made the first attempt to produce systematic categories for the analysis of formal organisations. In fact, most studies of the formal, structural characteristics of organisations have started from the work of Max Weber. Weber's interest in the nature of 'power' and 'authority' and his preoccupation with the process of 'rationalisation' produced an understanding about the structure of modem organisations. Weber argued that bureaucratic coordination of various activities in the social, economic, political and administrative spheres is a distinctive feature of modem era. Bureaucratic organisation of such diverse activities is further rooted in the process of rationalization which is characteristic of modem western societies. In the following, we will acquaint you with the fundamental aspects of Weber's conceptualization of bureaucracy, so that you are able to understand the structure and functioning of modem organisations including voluntary organisations. Bureaucratic coordination of the actions of a large number of individuals has become an important structural feature of modern form of organisations.

1.2.1 Nature of Authority-Structures Weber's principal contribution to the study of organisations is rooted in the analysis of structures of authority. He characterized organisations.in terms of authority-relations, while making a distinction between power and authority. Power is considered as the ability to force individuals to obey orders regardless of the resistance posed by them. By authority is meant that orders are voluntarily obeyed by individuals who receive the orders. In a system of authority, the orders of individual(s) performing superordinate (superior rank) role are considered as legitimate by those performing the subordinate roles. Based on the manner in which authority is legitimatised, Weber distinguished between three pure or ideal organisational types, viz., 'charismatic', 'traditional' and 'rational-legal'. These pure types are fundamental distinctions and each one of these finds an expression in a particular administrative apparatus or organisation. i)

Organisation Structured upon 'Charismatic Authority'

'Charismatic authority' is exercised by the personal charisma of a leader. By charisma, Weber meant any quality of a person that sets him apart from other ordinary individuals. For example, a charismatic religious or political leader is considered by people as having some exceptional (superhuman) power or qualities. In such a situation, an organisation is basically constituted by the charismatic leader and a set of disciples. The disciples normally perform the tasks of mediating between the charismatic leader and the masses. The existence of organisation is dependent upon the personal traits of a single person. The commands of authority are based on the inspiration of the charismatic leader. When a charismatic leader passes away, the issue of succession becomes problematic. Hence, this type of organisation has a built-in stability. Now, if succession turns out to be hereditary, the organisation acquires a traditional form. However, if succession is executed by a set of rules, then the organisation acquires bureaucratic character.

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

Basic Features of Voluntary Organisations

ii)

Organisation Based on Traditional Authority

Trahtional authority is rooted in past precedent, usage and custom. What has happened or occurred in the past is considered as sacred in a traditional organisation; past precedents and usage are considered sacrosanct and can not be violated by any individual. The rights and expectations of various personslgroups within a traditional organisation are determined by a system of customs. The inherited status forms the basis of legitimate authority of the leader. The limits of the nature and extent of authority are further determined by the system of customs. Unlike a charismatic leader, the authority in traditional organisation is vested in the role of leader rather than being a part of his personality. Under a traditional authority system actual organisation can acquire one of the following two forms : A patrimonial organisational form in which various officials are treated as personal servants of the leader. They remain dependent on the leader for their existence, livelihood, remuneration and so on. A feudal organisational form in which officials enjoy a relative autonomy having their own sources of income. The feudal form of organisation is embedded in the material base consisting of titles, fiefs, land-ownership beneficiaries and so on. Such an organisation is structured upon past usage and a system of customary rights and duties. Above all there is always a traditional relationship of loyalty towards the charismatic leader. iii) Bureaucratic (Rational-Legal Authority) Organisation

Weber noted that bureaucratic organisations are a dominant feature of modem societies. A bureaucratic organisation is structured upon 'rational-legal' system of authority. By rationality is meant that means are designed through proper calculation so as to achieve certain specific goals. The organisation is designed to perform certain functions. Every constituent of organisation contributes towards the attainment of maximum performance. By legal is meant that authority is exercised through a system of specified rules and regulations. Authority is invested in an 'official' that is occupied by an individual at a particular time. According to Weber, a bureaucratic organisation is technically the most efficient organisation. Various tasks are executed with precision and speed; and decisions are recorded on files in order to maintain continuity. The principle of strict subordination is maintained while executing orders. This reduces friction and minimizes material and personal costs. The organisation strives to raise efficiency to the optimum level through bureaucratic administration. The real basis for the efficiency of a bureaucracy lies in its organisational structure. A bureaucracy represents a system of depersonalised relations. It means personal whims, choices or preferences do not influence the functioning of the organisation. Means are employed to achieve declared ends and best results. Offices are arranged in a h3erarchical order. The authority of persons holding these offices is clearly defined and documented. A set of abstract rules and procedures determines the functioning of the organisation. Adequate distinction is maintained between personal and business affairs. Appointments are made on the basis of technical or professional qualification suitable for an office. Authority is vested in a particular office and not in the person occupying that office. Orders and commands are obeyed by subordinates because they are based' on rules and procedures and it is within the competence of a particular office to issue such commands. In order to maintain continuity and unity, there is a 'bureau' for the safe keeping of records and files. These structural features generate a highly efficient system of functioning, performance, coordination and control

1.2.2 Main Features of Ideal Type of Bureaucracy Max Weber constructed an ideal type of pure bureaucracy. He considered that bureaucratic method of administration was necessary for the efficient functioning of all formal organisations. An ideal conception of bureaucracy IS characterized by some basic features. These features of bureaucracy are manifest in varying degrees in all formal organisations. Most of the social, political, economic and voluntary organisations incorporate traditional and bureaucratic features depending upon their aims, objectives, structure and functions. The basic features of an 'ideal' type of bureaucracy are as follows : I

i)

A clearly defined division of labour within the organisation.

ii)

Various organisational tasks officially designated as belonging to specific official positions.

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

iii) Tasks are linked to specialisation and persons are recruited on the basis of technical qualifications suitable to particular official positions. iv) A hierarchy of authority with 'officials' (superordinates) performing at higher levels and subordinates functioning at lower levels of hierarchical order. The nature and scope of authority of each official position is well defined and limited. v) A formal system of rules and procedures and regulations which ensures coordination of activities and promotes unity, continuity and stability of the organisation. vi) Depersonalization of official positions having a universal ethos. Judgement of employees is based on their performance and actions rather than on their personal traits.

vii) Systematic advancement from lower to higher positions based on performance and qualifications. viii) Security of tenure and protection against arbitrary dismissal. This ensures the process of objective decision making within the organisation. -

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Check Your Progress I Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit. 1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (\j ) in the relevant box.

True

False a) Max Weber made the first attempt to produce systematic categories for the analysis of formal organisations. [ I 1 1 b) While making a distinction between 'power' and 'authority', Weber characterized organisations in terms of 'authority-relations'. [ ] [ ] c) Weber was not concerned with the legitimatization of authority while [ ] [ 1 distinguishing between three ideal types of organisations. d) Legitimatization of 'charismatic authority7 produces an organisation constituted by charismatic leader and a set of disciples. [ ] [ 1 e) Traditional authority is not rooted in past precedent, usage and custom.

[ ] [ I f)

In a patrimonial organisational form, various officials are treated as [ I [ ] servants of the leader.

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Basic Features of Voluntary Organisations

g) A bureaucratic organisation is structured upon 'rational-legal' system of [ I [ ] authority. h) Bureaucratic organisation is technically the most efficient organisation.

[ I [ ] 2) Explain, in brief, the basic features of a 'feudal form' of a traditional organisation. (Hint : see the text)

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1.3 MAIN PERSPECTIVES OF ORGANISATIONS In this section, we will acquaint you with the main perspectives eniployed to understand the structure and functioning of formal organisations. Rhoda Lois Blumberg (1987) considers three main models of organisations, viz., rational, natural and open systems. These are basically general perspectives or outlooks that guide more specific approaches to the study of organisations. In fact, they are broad frameworks for understanding the vast field of organisations.

1.3.1 The Rational Systems Model As explained in the earlier section, this organisational model is built upon 'rationallegal' authority. It corresponds to Weber's description of bureaucracy. The rational perspective places stress on formal. adequately demarcated official structure of the organisation. The structure is designed in such a way that office-holders act in an impersonal manner according to specified rules and procedures. Duties and responsibilities of incumbents are formally designated and rational guidelines are laid out for accepted behaviour of incumbents. Authority vested in various positions is legal and official, hence considered legitimate within the organisation. Well qualified persons are recruited for various positions of authority so as to maintain appropriate governance. Incumbents in lower positions accept the authority and obey orders of higher ups in h~erarchy.There is no scope for any ambiguity in rational system model, since a fomlal organisation is structured and functions according to properly rationalized written rules and specified official responsibilities. In real life situations people do not always act or behave according to a rational perspective. This perspective leaves out many issues and features unexplained which often find expression in the structure and functioning of real organisations. For instance, many a times, features associated with both the 'traditional organisation' and 'bureaucracy' co-exist in fornlal organisations. Again, display of personal preferences and influences can not be fully eliminated from the functioning of organisations. Despite such aspects, rational system model is considered as the universal starting point for the study of organisations.

1.3.2 The Natural Systems Model The above discussed rational perspective is considered inadequate by many theorists, since it does not envisage the existence of informal structures within formal organisations. It is argued that allnost every formal organisation gradually gives rise

to informal structures during its functioning. While performing offlcial duties, individuals also interact with each other in an organisation. Such interactions result in reciprocal relationships beyond the spelled out formal guidelines laid down by an organisation. Thus individuals holding offlcial positions gradually develop unofficial additiondmodified mechanisms of functioning within formal structures. The formal and informal structures together evolve into a unified interacting whole, hence forming a natural functional system.

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Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

While setting up an organisation (in abstraction) it is not possible to fully anticipate each and every future eventuality or occurrence for the organisers. Unanticipated situations may develop requiring urgent response from the incumbents. In the absence of proper formal guidelines, unofficial practices are adopted to overcome critical emergencies or to avoid disasters. Such informal unofficial practices gradually evolve into patterns related both to the needs of individuals (holding positions) and the requirements of an organisation. Many a times, objective constraints of functioning are such that persons holding official positions develop informal understanding to support each other (for instance, police officers facing a common threat or danger). Non-rational structures which develop within a formal organisation lie beyond Weber's conception of bureaucracy. Such non-rational aspects may be both beneficial and harmful to the organisation. Persons working in an organisation usually come from different social backgrounds and bring in varied psychological experiences. Sometimes, the needs of such persons may not be compatible with the requirements of an organisation. Persons holding official positions may not always be driven by the declared official goals of an organisation. Many a times, behind the official stated goals there is a hidden agenda of higher officials. Therefore, persons working at subordinate positions may gradually lack commitment to the goals of the organisation.

Human actions are not always rooted in reason. Emotions and beliefs substantially shape individual actions in an organisation. Therefore, Inany a times, persons holding official positions try to circumvent or devise means to circumvent rules so as to meet the emotional or sympathetic needs of the situation. Notwithstanding this aspect, a worker with overconformist or a stickler to rules within an organisation may unnecessarily obstruct or slow-down the flow of work. Hence, informal mechanisms become necessary to circumvent such situations. Sometimes informal cliques based on race, ethnicity, religion and so on may develop within an organisation even though such characteristics may not be compatible with the official positions. In sum, according to this perspective, an organisation as a real-life functioning system incorporates both formal (rational) and informal (non-rational) structures which are interlinked and interrelated with each other.

1.3.3 The Open Systems Model This perspective is based on the understahding that organisations are not closed systems fully immune from outside influences of social environment. Rather, organisations are open systems and procure their personnel and resources from other sources (beyond their own resources) in society. This open system accords central importance to the environment in which an organisation is formed or functioning. It considers formation and functioning of an organisation not only in terms of internal structure but also in relation to external influences exercised on them. A particular organisation exists within a matrix of other related organisations. Such organisations further interact with still other' social, economic, political organisations in society. A whole range of organisations are directly or indirectly tied up or dependent upon each other when viewed within the overall scenario in modern society.

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Basic Features of Organisations

The proponents of open system model do not envisage a single hierarchy of authority within the organisation. It is assumed that the structure of an organisation (according to this perspective) entertains that power/authority is located in multiple centers represented by different interest groups within the organisation. Such interests of groups are further influenced and shaped by various forces present in the overall societal environment of the organisation. Furthermore, even organisations in a particular society may be linked to and influenced by organisations existing in another society. For instance, multinational organisations belonging to a particular society may prefer to set up operations (production, marketing etc) in another society where, materials, labour or production costs are economically profitable and social environment is conductive to the functioning of the organisation. These perspectives emphasise different aspects of organisations; however, none of the perspectives is averse to the existence of similar elements in other models. Rational system model may be criticized for placing undue emphasis on formal, internal structural elements of an organisation. But this perspective (rooted in Weber's ideal type of bureaucracy) has remained the threshold for developing further understanding about the structural elements of organisations, viz., size, centralisation, formalisation, complexity and so on. The natural systems model, while recognizing the importance of formal structure, simultaneously highlights its limitations, and brings in the relevance of informal structures in an organisation. The open system is critical of perspectives which focus only on the internal structures of the organisation, since they do not accord sufficient attention to the continuous flow of structural elements among various organisations.

Check Your Progress I1

I Note:

a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit.

1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (4) in the relevant box. . True False a) Rational systems model corresponds to Weber's description of bureaucracy. [ I [ ] b) Rational systems model is considered as the universal starting point for the study of organisations. c) Non-rational structures which develop in organisations can be easily accommodated within Weber's conception of bureaucracy. [ ] 1 ] d) The national systems model envisages the existence of informal structures within formal organisations. [ I [ ] e) Non-rational structures may be both beneficial and harmful to [ I [ ] organisations.

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f)

The open systems model accords importance not only to internal structure but also to the external environment of organisations.

g) According to open systems model, an organisation exists and interacts with a matrix of other related organisations in society, h) Proponents of open systems model do no\ envisage a single hierarchy of authority within an organisation. [ I [ ]

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2) Explain, in brief, the factors which give rise to informal structures within a formal organisation. (Hint : see the text)

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1.4 IMPORTANT APPROACHES: CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISATIONS A whole range and a great variety of organisations exist in modem society. All organisations can not be treated alike in nature; nor can each and every organisation be viewed as having entirely exclusive and unique features. However, in order to render the vast complex field of organisations comprehensible, it is of paramount importance to delineate crucial similarities or dissimilarities among them. Organisational theorists have developed approaches based on specific criteria, hence generating different classifications. For instance, employing the criterion of 'profit', organisations can be classified as business concerns and nonprofit organisations. Similarly, approaches to study organisations have employed a variety of criteria viz. 'power and compliance', 'organisational survival', 'organisational effectiveness', technology and so on. Again, for instance, focusing on 'organisational survival', managerial interest in organisations has often accorded prime importance to the success and survival of an organisation. Blumberg (1987), has furnished a sound understanding about the important approaches developed by organisational theorists and subsequent classification or organisation. In this section, we will furnish a summary of his analysis so as to acquaint you with the contributions of important organisational theorists highlighting the 'meaningful differences' among different types of organisations. This will enable you to identify the location of voluntary organisations within the whole gamut of formal organisations.

1.4.1 Concept of 'Primary-Beneficiary' The central assumption employed by Peter Blau and W. Richard Scott (1962) to analyse organisaions is "cui bono - who benefits". They made efforts to identify the 'prime-beneficiary' from amongst the different categories of participants in an organisation. A$cording to them, there are four categories of persons in relation to any formal organisation: members or rank-and-file participants; owners or managers; clients or 'public-in-contact' (people &ho are technically outside the organisation yet have regular interaction with it); and public-at-large, i.e., members of society in which an organisation functions. Blau and Scott argued that although all parties benefit, gains to one party furnish the real reason for the existence of an organisation. For instance, the existence of a business concern is solely tied-up with the 'profit' making interest of the owner. If the business shows a continuous loss, the owner will liquidate the organisation (i.e., the company). Thus identifying the 'prime beneficiary', Blau and Scott classified following four types of organisations : i)

~ u t u a l - ~ e n e f Organisations it

In a mutual-benefit organisation, the prime beneficiary is the category of rank-andfile members. The organisation is structured in such a way so that goods and services

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

Basic Features of Organisations

are produced for the benefit or welfare of its members. Ideally, the internal structure is envisaged to maintain complete democracy within the mutual benefit organisation. However, in practice there is a tendency for power to concentrate in the hands of an elite minority and such organisations are ultimately managed by an oligarchy. The examples are trade unions, clubs, professional organisations and so on. ii)

Business Concerns

In any business concern the prime beneficiary is the owner(s) of the organisation. Since the sole aim of a business concern is making a 'profit', the organisational structure is geared towards maximizing operational efficiency in a competitive environment. The examples are industrial firms, companies, banks and the like. iii) Service Organisations The prime beneficiaries of service organisations are the 'clients' or public-in-contact. The service organisation is structured to accord prime importance to the interests of welfare of the client over and above the administrative needs of the organisation, Self-interest of professionals providing service is considered secondary since the sole aim of service organisation is the satisfaction of clients. The term public-in-contact assumes that there is always a regular interaction between outsiders and the organisafion. Such outsiders are in reality not part of the structure of the organisation. But they do cross the boundaries of organisations, bring in fresh ideas and ultimately influence the structure and functioning of service organisations. Examples are social work agencies, schools and hospitals. iv) Commonweal Organisations Blau and Scott noted that the primary beneficiary of any commonweal organisation is always the public-at-large. The organisaiion is structured to serve the general public in society. Notions such as 'profit-making' are not relevant to the existence of these organisations. A commonweal organisation continues to function for the general good of the public even if it incurs financial loss. The internal structure of many such organisations is geared towards promoting extraordinary performance. Another feature is that external democratic control is exercised over these organisations by other democratic institutions of society. Examples are state bureaucracy, police departments, and military organisations.

1.4.2 Membership and Notion of ProfitJNonprofit Westrum and Samaha (1984) employed the principles related to the nature of membership and notion of 'profit' in their analysis of complex organisations. They argued that: organisations constituted by full-time members are different from organisations having part-time members; and organisations whose central concern is 'profit' are different from non-profit organisations. Based on these two assumptions, i.e., nature of membership and notion of 'profit' they classified organisations into three main types, viz., bureaucracy, enterprise and voluntary organisations. i)

Bureaucracy

It is a full-time, nonprofit organisation formed to carry out a specific mission. For instance, a bureaucracy constituted to run the affairs of state, provides full-time employment to various incumbents, and functions according to the laws laid out by the state. The funds that support a state bureaucracy are collected from public in the form of taxes, fees and so on. For more detailed dscussion on bureaucracy, refer to section 1.2 - Formal Organisations of this unit.

ii) Enterprise According to this perspective, an enterprise is defined as a full-time, profit making organisation. Basically an enterprise is set up to earn money (profit making) by producing goods or services or by making profitable investments in other organisations. Managers, professionals and staff are generally full time employees of an enterprise. This categorisation of enterprise is more or less similar to business concerns (discussed above) since the prime beneficiary of such profit-making venture are ultimately the owners of the organisation. iii) Voluntky Association

Westrum and Samaha define voluntary association as a part-time organisation which is also essentially non-profit in nature. Members of a voluntary association do not display a full-time commitment to the organisation. A voluntary association is supposed to be primarily a service oriented organisation.

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In an ideal type of voluntary organisation, members are supposed to make unpaid contributions' in terms of labour, time, professional expertise and vision to the organisation. For instance, most charitable and public service organisations remain devoted to selfless service or welfare of society. However, in practice there is a wide range of variations among voluntary organisations. Large voluntary organisations do engage full-time paid workers, employees or professionals to run the organisation. Even though members of a voluntary organisation may benefit from many kinds of indirect advantages, under no circumstances it should reduce itself to become a mutual benefit association.

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1.4.3 Power and Compliance This approach developed by Amitai Etzioni (1961) relies on the twin concepts of 'power' and compliance. According to Etzioni, power is the ability to induce or influence another role player to cany out one's directions in an organisation. Compliance determines the relationship between those who have the power and those over whom power is exercised within the organisation. The subordinated individual in this relationshp accepts or follows orders. Application of power orients an individual's behaviour within the organisation. This orientation in turn determines the individual's involvement and commitment to the organisation. Etzioni further qualified power as coercive, remunerative and normative, each type producing specific behavioural effects (involvement and commitment), viz., alienative', 'calculative' and 'moral', respectively. Coercive power refers to threat or application of physical sanctions such as punishments. For instance, a coercive organisation such as a prison brings about alienative, negative involvement of intimates. Remunerative power is based on exercise of control over material resources (finances, assets, services) of the organisation. A rational distribution in the form of salaries, perks and so on generates calculative behavioural effects within the organisation.

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Normative power is based on the conferring of symbolic rewards which enhance prestige or acceptance of members, hence generating moral behavioural effects in an organisation. The exercise of these different types of power and consequent compliance (obedience) among members influences the structure and functioning of formal organisations.

1.4.4 Concept of 'Total Institution' Erving Goffman's (1961) concept of 'total institution' refers to an ideal (extreme polar type) type based on an all-encompassing control exercised over the individual by an

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

Basic Features of Organisations

organisation. The 'public-in-contact' in this kind of organisation may exclusively consist of individuals such as inmates of mental institutions or students in boarding" schools and military academies. The fundamental distinction is that an ind~vidualis not entitled to a separation of place for sleep, play and work. Individual engages in all the activities on the premises of the organisation. The administrative structure is designed in such a way that a small number of limited staff is able to manage and exercise . control over a large number of inmates (members) within the organlsation. Goffman analysed the process of resocialization that takes place in such people-processing organisations. According to him, this process of resocialization tends to be harsh and is aimed at eliminating previous identities, hence producing uniformity and leveling of individuals within the organisation. Goffman's approach is not concerned with the aidgoals or the kinds of power exercised by the organisation. This approach is devoted to understand the effects of organisational structure on the individual, the nature of attempts made to bring about resocialisation, and individual's potential of coping with assaults on the self in such an organisation.

1.4.5 Technology Joan Woodward (1965) argued that technology was the most significant in determining the structure of an organisation. This approach does not accord prime importance to different structures as determined by hierarchy, size, official positions, size of membership and so on. Rather, it places emphasis of the nature of technology as an independent variable which influences the structure and consequent human relationships within an organisation. Woodward's work laid the foundation for further research in this area which gave rise to contingency theory. The central assumption of contingency theory is that the best organisational structure for a given task is contingent (depends on) on the nature of task. Later on, scholars working to build on this perspective considered the defining characteristics of technology as 'the work done in organisation'. Technology is treated as an independent variable and the structure, i.e., arrangement among persons engaged in the work as a dependent variable. Technology is simply described as the actions that an individual performs upon a given object (with or without the aid of mechanical tools) so as to transform the nature and form of the object. The consequences of such a broad definition are that variations in the nature of technology influences the number of skilledlunskilled workers, character of supervision, arrangements related to the process of production and ultimately the overall structure of an organisation. No doubt this approach is rooted in the analysis of industrial organisations; however, this technological approach is also extended to study the non-industrial formal organisations. 1

Check Your Progress 111 Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit. 1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already

read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (d ) in the relevant box. True False a) Blau and Scott employed the criteria of 'primary beneficiary' in the [ I [ ] analysis of organisations. b) In a business concern 'primary beneficiary' is not the owner(s) of the [ I [ ] organisation. c) The 'primary beneficiaries' in a service organisation are such clients as are not part of the structure of the organisation. [ I [ ]

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d)

According to Westrum and Samaha, organisations having full-time members are similar to organisations having part-time members.[ ] [ ]

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

e) Westrum and Samaha define voluntary association as part-time [ I [ ] organisation which also essentially non-profit in nature. f)

Amitai Etzioni's approach to the analysis of organisations is based on [ I [ ] the twin concepts of 'power' and 'compliance'.

g)

Erving Goffman's approach analysed the effects of organisational structure on the resocialisation of individuals within an organisation.

[ I [ ] h) Joan Woodward assigned central place to 'technology' while analysing the structure of organisation. [ I [ ] 2) Classify organisations by employing the concept of 'primary-beneficiary'. (Hint : see the text)

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1.5 STRUCTURE OF VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS

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In this section, we will explain to you important aspects related to the structure of voluntary organisations. After identifying the basic nature of their structure, we will describe the essential characteristics of the conception of an ideal and egalitarian structure of a voluntary organisation. You will also learn about the important basic features which constitute the general structure of voluntary organisations.

1.5.1 Nature of Structure A Voluntary Organisation is formed when a group of people having some common interest, voluntarily come together and agree to act in order to achieve a particular purpose, objective or goal. It may continue to function as a small organisation based on informal relations among its members. Such a voluntary organisation may function without any well developed structural features characteristic of formal organisations. However, in case the original members urge more like-minded persons to join them, then the organisation may acquire the form and structural features of large formal organisations. As social structures, large voluntary organisations tend to acquire distinct features of formal leadership, specialized activity, division of labour, official positions, rules for operating, place and time of meetings and other such features. Most small voluntary organisations such as recreational clubs and professional societies usually have volunteer workersloffice holders, a minimum constitution (if any), flexible rules, by-laws or procedures which are not strictly followed in their functioning. In such organisations, the informal structures determine the functioning since the organisation operates vaguely and loosely according to the demands of a situation. Since membership is small and there exists a general consensus about simple purposes1 goals, such informal functioning brings in high efficiency within the organisation. A small voluntary organisation is able to maintain internal democracy and process of 17

Basic Features of Organisations

making decisions; subsequent implementation requires minimum of bureaucratic procedures to be followed by the members of the organisation. Voluntary organisations having large base of membership spread across vast geographical areas and with complex and multifaceted policies and goals develop more formal and rigid organisational structure. A large voluntary organisation with scattered membership usually has a bureaucratic structure employing paid office bearers, professionals, staff and office for dealing with the routine affairs of the organisation. An elected governing body takes care of policy matters, and grants approvals to policies formulated and developed by professional staff working at various levels in the voluntary organisation. In theory, all the members are entitled to have democratic control over any large voluntary organisation. However, in actual practice, only a small oligarchy of office-bearers and professionals control the functioning of large voluntary organisations.

1.5.2 An Ideal Egalitarian Structure Two fundamental tenets, i.e., 'right to freedom of association' and 'voluntarism' lie at the root of any voluntary association (see unit-2, block-1). Therefore, as the basic structure of a voluntary association acquires an organisational form, it is assumed that internal organisational structure remains democratic in nature. Organisational structure should be such as allows the members all kinds of democratic freedoms within a voluntary organisation. The nature and structure of 'authority' must reside in the collective will of its members. Authority is considered legitimate only when every member participates in the process of making decisions. Every member should have an equal voice in the affairs of a voluntary organisation. A voluntary organisation must make minimum use of rules and regulations in its functioning. Members may make decisions and their implementation according to their freedom and convenience by innovating and inventing rules and procedures suitable to the demands of a situation. Conformity to organisational behaviour must be obtainedfsecured through personal or moral appeals in relation to objectives and goals of voluntary organisation. The internal democratic structure must ensure an environment of informal relations of friendship and companionship based on shared values of voluntary organisations. The criteria for recruiting new members must also conform to values of existing members. Egalitarian structure of a voluntary organisation must provide equal opportunity to members for achieving personal satisfa2ion while performing within the organisation. Since such an egalitarian structure envisages no hierarchical order of official positions; issues of personal advancement (promotions, variations in pay perks) become also irrelevant to the members. However, members do gain sufficient valuable experience which may capacitate them to exercise considerable autonomobs control over their work and performance in a voluntary organisation.

1.5.3 Basic Features of Structure of VOs

18

An internal egalitarian structure is usually conceived in consonance with the fundamental democratic ethos characteristic of a voluntary organisation. In practice and actual functioning the reality of voluntary organisations acquires altogether different dimensions. The commitments and pressures of performance - meeting of deadlinesltargets, achievement of goals etc. - exerts rigorous demands for efficient performance of the organisation. Implementation of decisions and expenditure of funds etc. give rise to issues related to accountability. Geographical spread of a voluntary organisation brings in picture the need for effective coordination and management. Hence, as a voluntary organisation grows in size and expands its operations, the need for a formal bureaucratic structure becomes imminent for the survival and success of the organisation. Though informal relations among members continue to play a vital role, bureaucratic features start exerting substantial influence in shaping the structure of large voluntary organisations. Notwithstanding certain variations in nomenclature, the basic constituents

of the structure of voluntary organisations, in general, may be considered as follows: i)

Objectives

ii) Constitution iii) Membership

iv) General Body V) Executive Council vi) Governing Body i)

I

1 I

I

I

I

Objectives

The identification of objectives is the first and foremost requirement for the emergence and existence of a voluntary organisation. The potential source of objectives may be some issue(s) or problem(s) of mutual-interest or related to local community or concerning the large interest of society. The objectives form the basis for like-minded persons to come together and to constitute a voluntary organisation. Objectives are an important structural feature that influences the constitutiqn and guides the overall functioning of a voluntary organisation. Small voluntary organisations usually have limited objectives specific to the local problemslneeds in the immediate vicinity of community. For example, the objectives may be related to the welfare of residents in an urban settlement or concerning sanitation in a village or repairing of a local road in a rural area. Larger voluntary organisations generally formulate broader objectives aimed at bringing some crucial change in the overall conditions of society. Such objectives may be related to the welfare and upliftment of underprivileged sections of society, child labour, gender issues, environmental issues and so on. The nature and character of objectives may be influenced-by local needs, cultural contexts, socioeconomic conditions, requirements of resource providers (donors) and state policies. However, for acquiring a formal or legal status, it is of paramount importance that objectives must be explicitly stated in the 'constitution' of a voluntary organisation.

ii)

Constitution

A voluntary organisation functions by adhering to a set of rules and regulations in

,

order to pursue its objectives. Based on the shared values, the rules and regulations are framed with a consensus by the members. Such rules and regulations are framed at the time of inception keeping in view the larger objectives of a voluntary organisation. Further, these rules and regulations are adequately codified and recorded in a written document that forms the constitution of a voluntary organisation.

I

Essentially, the 'constitution' represents the spirit of a voluntary organisation. Constitution guides and directs the future course and growth of a voluntary organisation. Each and every activity of a voluntary organisation is basically conducted according to its constitution. In case a voluntary association desires to obtain a legal status, the constitution is stated in the form of 'memorandum of association' that is submitted (for purposes of registration) to competent authorities of the state.

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I I

I

)

The constitution determines the internal structure of a voluntary organisation. It provides a blue print for authority-relations and subsequent arrangement of 'offices' within a voluntary organisation. It provides a broader framework for electing/selecting (recruitment)of office-bearers or professionals and the attendant powers, responsibilities and jurisdiction for the smooth fuictioning of a voluntary organisation. Constitution determines the nature, size, role, power, duties and responsibilities of various authoritative bodies, viz., governing body, executive council, general body and so on. Constitution also provides guidelines for structuring bye-laws, procedures and norms related to the routine operations of a voluntary organisation. Hence, constitution is the most important document that determines the nature and character of the structure, i.e., authority relationship between different office-bearers, power and jurisdiction of office-bearers, tenure, policies, duties and responsibilities of members within a voluntary organisation.

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

Basic Features of Voluntary Organisations

iii) Membership The nature. character, size and geographical spread of membership base influences and determines the structure of a voluntary organisation. Some voluntary organisations are formed only to express or satisfy the interest of their members, viz., social and hobby clubs, local sport, associations, professional societies and so on. These are called Expressive Voluntary organisations and are usually constituted by small and limited number of members. The members are drawn from a particular segment of community, e.g., youth, professional class, persons interested in a particular hobby and so on. The overall structure of such voluntary organisations having small membership is usually based on infomlal relationships among its members. Bureaucratic features associated with fomlal structure are kept to the minimum in such organisations. There is always some kind of minimum formal structure, viz., office-bearers, basic rules, constitution, and so on. However, most affairs in small voluntary organisations are conducted in an infom~almanner based on the personal relations among its members. There are other kinds of voluntary organisations which are directed outward and strive to achieve some condition or change In society. Such voluntary organisations have generally a large membership base cutting across various strata, classes or sections of society and spread over vast geographical areas. These are called 'socialinfluence' or Instrumental Voluntary organisations. The structure of such voluntary organisations is dominated by all the bureaucratic features associated with formal organisations. The demands of performing taskslactlvities are such as requires clearly defined distribution of functional responsibilities among members. Structure of authorityrelations is well defined. Authority is vested in various offices arranged in a certain hierarchical order. Tasks and duties are perfomled according to rules and regulations. Mechanism for assigning responsibility and accountability are adequately incorporated i n the structure of the voluntary organisation. Financial codes of conduct formulated along true professional lines are very much part of the structure in large voluntary organisations. In short, structure of a large voluntary organisation incorporates bureaucratic features for the smooth and efficient functioning of the organisation. In addition to vertical/hierarchical authority structure, large voluntary organisations having vast geographical spread of membership, do incorporate horizontally decentralised relatively independent authority structures. Except for critical policy decisions, regional, zonal and local offices of large voluntary organisations enjoy substantial autonomy and decision making powers in response to local problemslconditions. Besides that, there are always sufficient infornlal structures (mechanisms) which take care of matters of secondary nature within large voluntary organisations. Each and every voluntary organisation formulates its own particular rules, eligibility criteria, professional qualifications or lays down other conditions, viz., age, religious beliefs, ethnic identity, locality and so on for grant of membership. Subject to variations, the major types of membership may be characterized as founder-members. lifemembers, ordinary members, temporary members, honorary members and so on. Further, the members may be mere volunteers, paid workerslskilled labour, semiprofesisonals, scientists (experts), professionals and so on. Each type of membership has a particular structural location and significance in terms of participation, authority, influence, contribution and so on within a voluntary organisation. All types of membership exert a strong bearing on the nature and character of the internal structure of a voluntary organisation. iv) General Body Theoretically, the general body is the most powerful constituent of the structure of a voluntary organisation. The general body comprises all the members of a voluntary organisation. The ultimate authority is vested with the generdl body. All major policies, financial decisions, strategies for implementation and so on require a final sanction and approval of the general body. Decisions regarding the nature and formation

20

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

(elections) of governing body, executive council, structure of authority-relations, any changes in constitution require an ultimate mandate from the general body. Since general body represents the collective will of all the members, the structure of a voluntay organisation tends to display decentralized democratic characteristics. Nowadays, members constituting general body of a large voluntary organisation are generally spread over vast geographical areas. It is practically difficult for all the members to meet frequently for making decisions. Therefore, meetings of general body are held at regular intervals (quarterly, half-yearly or yearly) as specified and laid down in the constitution. But the progress-report related to each interval viz. success/failure of policies, difficulties in implementation, details of expenditure and accounts (usually taken up in annual reports) organisational problems and so on (in other words each and every aspect related to functioning) must be placed for discussion and seeking approval before the general body. v) ~xecutiveCouncil In the context of performing the administrative and managerial tasks, the executive council is considered as a significant component of the structure of a voluntary organisation. Executive Council incorporates most of the structural features characteristic of a bureaucratic organisation. It comprises hierarchy of office-holders, division of labour, and workers including professionals. Authority relationships are more or less structured like a bureaucracy. The Executive Council is generally responsible for the implemen.tation of decisions and policies so as to achieve the goals set by a voluntary organisation. It (implementing agency) is mainly concerned with the administrative tasks necessary for an effective execution of various programmes of a voluntary organisation. It is engaged in the efficient management of resources and devises effective strategies for overcoming obstacles faced during the process of implementation, particularly in field situations. The size and constitution of Executive Council varies depending upon the nature and character of a voluntary organisation. Many a times, the Executive Council has a mixed composition comprising volunteers, para-workers, and salaried employeeslprofessionals. Volunteers do not draw direct economic benefits (salaries); however, they enjoy indirect benefits and are generally given a token honorarium in lieu of their services to the voluntary organisation. Small community based voluntary organisations employ a minuscule number of office bearers1 employees. However, executive functions of large voluntary organisations are performed by an elaborate salaried bureaucracy similar to formal and complex organisations. vi) Governing Body Governing body is the apex structural component of the whole structure of a voluntary organisation. The governing body is vested with the authority to oversee the overall administrative and managerial functions of a ,voluntary organisation. The size of governing body varies depending upon the nature, character, size and geographical spread. Office-bearers of a governing body are elected or chosen by consensus by all the members of a voluntary organisation. The tenure or period of holding office in the governing body is determined according to rules laid down in the constitution. The governing body makes important administrative decisions and ensure: the overall smooth functioning of a voluntary organisation.

Check Your Progress IV Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit.

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1)

The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tick-mark (.\I ) in the relevant box.

.

Basic Features of Voluntary Organisations

True False A small voluntary organisation usually has a minimum of formal structure a) and functions mainly on the basis of informal relations among itb members.

[ I l l b) Large voluntary organisations tend to acquire bureaucratic structure, viz., formal leadership, division of labour, hierarchy and well defined [ 1 [ 1 rules. C) An ideal egalitarian structure of a voluntary organisation must ensure internal democracy, i.e., equal participation based on informal relations [ I [ ] of companionship and shared values among members. d) The identification of objectives is an unimportant and secondary requirement for establishing a voluntary organisation. [ I [ ] e) Essentially, the constitution represents the spirit and determines the internal structure of authority-relations of a voluntary organisation. [ 1 [ 1 f)

The nature, character, size and geographical spread of membership base does not influence the structure of a voluntary organisation. [ 1 [ ]

g) The ultimate authority resides in the collective-will of general body of a voluntary organisation. [ I [ ] h) Major policies, financial decisions, strategies for implementation of programmes require a mandatory approval from the general body of a [ ] [ I voluntary organisation.

2) Differentiate between the nature of structure inherent in Expressive and Instrumental voluntary organisations. (Hint : see the text)

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1.6 PROCESSES AFFECTING STRUCTURE OF VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS Like all other formal organisations, voluntary organisations experience, more or less, the same social processes which transform their structure. Based on an analysis of sociological aspects of voluntary organisations (David L. Sills, 1968), we will explain in this section, four important processes which substantially influence their structure viz. Formalisation, Minority Rule, Goal Displacement and Goal Succession.

L6.P Formalisation Initially, a voluntary association is established when a loosely held group of persons come together to pursue some common interest. They are basically bound by commitment to a purpose, idea or goal. With time, such a loosely formed organisation tends to acquire bureaucratic features characteristic of formal organisatibns. Sills notes that studies conducted on the histories of voluntary organisations have shown that the process of formalisation gradually influences the structure during the evolution of a voluntary organisation. These studies have analysed such quantitative variables

as number of members, total annual income, total annual expenditure, value of organisational property and number of administrative employees. It is revealed that there are two cycles in the evolution of a voluntary organisation viz. 'cycle of growth' and 'cycle of formalisation'. Membership starts declining at a point which separates both the cycles. Annual income starts declining sometime during the cycle of formalisation. The other variables, viz., annual expenditures and value of organisational property gradually increase throughout both the cycles. It means that as a voluntary organisation grows, the number of offices, official positions, salaried staff, paid professional increases and ultimately brings in a drastic transformation in the structure of the organisation. Consequently, it increases the expenditure incurred on the salaries of office-bearers, employees and staff employed by the voluntary organisation. Hence, during this process of formalisation, a voluntary organisation tends to acquire all the bureaucratic features characteristic of formal organisations. ,-

A similar process of formalisation (bureaucratisation) has also been observed in voluntary organisations which acquire an institutionalized form of social movements. The following three main phases have been observed in the life cycle of voluntary organisations :

Incipient Phase: This is the initial phase in the life cycle of a voluntary organisation (social movement). A charismatic leader envisages a goal. A small number of followers work together to achieve that goal. Organisational Phase: During this phase the voluntary organisation expands its operations, consolidates and gets fully established. Stable Phase: During this phase the structure of voluntary organisation (if it survives) tends to acquire professional, bureaucratic and conservative characteristics as found in formal organisation. This literature suggests that process of formalisation exercises significant influences in the life cycle of voluntary organisations. As a voluntary organisation evolves, grows and expands its operations, the structure tends to acquire all the bureaucratic features thus acquiring an organisational form similar to formal organisations.

1.6.2 Minority Rule Voluntary organisations are established on the fundamental principle of freedom of association. They also flourish mostly in democratic societies. Further, voluntary organisations generally have such constitutions, rules, bye-laws, as encourage democratic participation by members. Democratic ethos of societies in which they exist is also conductive for free and smooth participation by members in the affairs of voluntary organisations. However, as voluntary organisations grow and expand their operations, the ground reality turns out to be different. The members usually start becoming disinterested and actual participation by members declines within a voluntary organisation. Voluntary organisations ultimately tend to be dominated by the 'iron law of oligarchy'. In other words, authority gets vested with a small group of persons who practically govern a voluntary organisation. The structure of a voluntary organisation often acquires such dimensions as are conducive to promote or serve the mutual interests of an oligarchy. The voluntary organisation becomes divided into a minority of directors and a majority of members who receive directions like any other large fonfial organisation. The oligarchy assumes the tasks of leadership and exercises de facto authority in the voluntary organisation. A usual explanation forwarded to understand the phenomenon of minority rule in voluntary organisations is attributed to the general apathy of members. Not subscribing to such an explanation, Barber (1950) noted that the social structure of role obligations and the structural needs of organisations together militate against 'complete'

Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

Basic Features of Organisations

participation. Literature suggests that more or less a similar situation exists in the case of voluntary organisations. Since members join according to their own free will, voluntary organisations are supposed to be different in terms of participation from other formal organisations. In many instances, voluntary organisations do display a higher participation in the affairs of the organisation. Notwithstanding these aspects, the structural features of voluntary or~anisationsare ultimately considered responsible for evoking disinterest among members, hence creating conditions for minority rule of the oligarchy.

1.6.3 Goal Displacement Voluntary organisations are formed to pursue certain aims or goals. At the time of inception, a voluntary organisation makes a clear statement about the description of goal$. But this does not mean that the organisations' rules, regulations and procedures will guarantee or ensure the achievement of such goals. Research has shown that rules and procedures often obstruct or distract the organisation from the goals. Sills (1957) has noted as follows : In order to accomplish their goals, organisations establish a set of procedures or means. In the course of following these procedures, however, subordinates or members to Whom authority and functions have been delegated often come to regard as ends in themselves, rather than as means towards the achievement of organisational goals. Like all formal organisations, with growth and expansion, the structure of a voluntary organisation tends to acquire bureaucratic features which obstruct or effect displacement of original goals. The impact of rigid bureaucratic structure on goal displacement has the following implications: Development of tendency among participants to retain high status positions in a voluntary organisation : Office-bearers start giving prime importance to activities which promote their self-serving pursuits. Consequently, goal-directed activities are relegated to the background ultimately resulting in the displacement of initial goals. Rigid adherence to rules and their strict enforcement produces a slavish tendency of following procedures among participants in a voluntary organisation. The sensitivity towards rules and procedure acquires such dimensions that ultimately the very task of adhering to rules and procedures turns out to be an end in itself. Development of informal structures within voluntary organisations is another source of goal displacement. Informal structures are known to impart efficiency (bypassing bureaucratic procedures) and contribute to goal-achievement in a voluntary organisation. However, such informal structures are also considered as producing a certain degree of goal displacement.

1.6.4 Goal Succession We have explained above two negative consequences, i.e., minority rule (oligarchy) and 'displacement of goals' produced by the process of 'organisation formation' in the stnscture of voluntary organisations. These views have been challenged by 'other scholars. The assumption that an oligarchy can deliberately affect the functioning and prevent the success of an organisation is considered misleading by some theorists of organisations. The broad argument is that 'iron law of oligarchy' holds true only under certain circumstances. Even if it holds true, there are possibilities that other democratic values are simultaneously enhanced within a voluntary organisation. Alvin W. Gouldner (1961) noted that the underlying tendencies which are likely to undermine the democratic process are just as potent to obstruct the authoritarian structures. here cannot be antiron law of oligarchy unless' there is an iron law of democracy. To make it simple for you in the context of voluntary organisations, the whole argument is that tlie processes of 'organisation-formation' which give rise to authoritarian minority rule are

equally potent to create other democratic structures within a voluntary organisation. Such new democratic structures may have sufficient potential to counter the effects of minority rule. Peter Blau (1963) observed that organisations do not necessarily behave in a rigid bureaucratic manner when their goals are achieved or made irrelevant by particular circumstances. Rather, they tend to shift attention towards new goals. Blau called this process as the 'succession of goals'. He argued that achievement of initial organisational objectives results in a pressure for searching new objectives. In order to justify its existence and create avenues for providing incentives to its members, an organisation strives to adopt new goals after realization of its original goals. Most of these arguments are in the context of their formal organisations but they do suggest that value and significance of organisational goals succession is more or less equally applicable to voluntary organisations.

Check Your Progress V Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this Unit. 1) The following statements have been based on the text that you have already read. Indicate whether these statements are true or false by putting tickmark (4) in the relevant box. True False a) The process of formalisation gradually influences the structure during the evolution of a voluntary organisation. [ I [ ] b) There are two cycles in the evolution of a voluntary organisation viz. [ I [ ] 'cycle of growth' and 'cycle of formalisation'. c) As voluntary organisations grow and expand their operations, they tend to be dominated by 'iron law of oligarchy'. [ I [ ] d) Structural features of a voluntary organisation do not create conditions for the 'minority rule' of an oligarchy. [ I [ ] e) Adherence to rules and procedures in the functioning of a voluntary [ I [ ] organisation ensures the achievement of goals. f)

With growth and expansion, the structure of a voluntary organisation tends to acquire bureaucratic features which effect displacement of [ I [ ] original goals.

g) The process wherein a voluntary organisation tends to shift attention towards new goals (if original goals are achieved or become irrelevant) is called succession of goals. [ I [ ] h) The process of organisation-formation which gives rise of minority rule is equally potent to create other democratic structures in a voluntary [ ] [ I organisation. 2)

Explain, in brief, the impact of a rigid bureaucratic structure on goal displacement in the context of voluntary organisations. (Hint : see the text)

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Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

Basic Features of Voluntary Organisations

1.7' LET US SUM UP The nature of structural features is of critical importance to the functioning, internal authority relations, efficiency, success and survival of voluntary organisations. Small voluntary organisations usually have minimum of formal structure and mostly rely on diffuse structures based on informal relations. Large voluntary organisations tend to acquire formal structures characteristic of modem 'bureaucracies', though informal structures also continue playing a significant role in their functioning. In the beginning we have explained Max Weber's concept of 'bureaucracy' which is extremely important for understanding the structure of modem organisations, including voluntary organisations. Weber analysed organisations in terms of structures of authority-relations viz., charismatic authority, 'traditional authority' and 'rational-legal authority'. We have also described the basic features of Weber's ideal (pure) conception of 'bureaucracy'. These structural features are manifest (in varying degree) in all modem forms of formal organisations. After that you have learned about the main perspectives (broad-frameworks) critical to the understanding of structure and functioning of modern organisations, viz., the rational systems model, the natural systems model and the open systems model. Further, we have described the most significant approaches crucial to the analysis of organisations. These approaches are based on specific assumptions viz. 'primarybeneficiary'; 'membership and notion of non-profit'; 'power and compliance'; 'totalinstitution'; technology and other such features. These approaches are extremely useful for understanding the essential features which determine the overall form and structure of formal organisations. The above assumptions, inherent in these approaches also facilitate classification of formal organisations viz. business concerns, enterprises, mutual-benefit organisations, service organisations, non-profit organisations, voluntary organisations and so on. After that we have described the basic organisational form and essential structural features of voluntary organisations. Structures of small voluntary organisations are based on informal relations and they rely on minimum of bureaucratic procedures for their functioning. Large voluntary organisations tend to acquire distinct structural features of formal leadership, elaborate hierarchy, official positions, division of labour, specialized activities, rules and regulations. We have also explained the basic features of an ideal egalitarian structure conceived in relation to the essence of voluntary organisations. This conception of an ideal structure of a voluntary organisation is conducive for internal democracy; functional freedoms; authority of collective will; participatory decision-making; conformity with shared values; absence of hierarchical order; moral authority. Such an ideal egalitarian structure has a significant reference value. for comparing and understanding the structural features of voluntary organisations operating in real life situations in society. Next, we have furnished a detailed description of the external form and basic general features of an operational structure of voluntary organisations, viz., objectives, constitution, membership, general body, executive council and governing body. Notwithstanding certain variations in nomenclature, these general structural features are crucial to the functioning of voluntary organisations. At the end you have learned about the processes of organisation-formation which effect substantial transformation in the structure of voluntary organisations.

SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES -

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Barber, Bernard, 'Participation and Mass Apathy in Associations, pp 477-504 in Alvin W.Gouldner (ed.) Studies in Leadership : Leadership and Democratic Action, New York : Harper, 1950.

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Blau, Peter, M. and W.Richard Scott, Formal Omanisations. San Francisco : Chandler Publishing, 1962. Blau, Peter, M., The Dynamics of Bureaucracy :A Study of Interpersonal Relations in Two Government Agencies, Chicago : Univ. of Chicago Press, 1963 (rev. ed.) Blumberg, Lois Rhoda, Organisutions in Contemporary Society, Englewood Chiffs, N.J. : Prentice Hall Inc. 1987. Etzioni, Amitai, A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organisations, Glencoe ILL : Freepress, 1961. Etzioni, Amitai, Modem Organisations, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice Hall, 1964. Goffman, Erving, Asylums, New Yorks : Doubleday, Anchor Books, 1961 Gouldner, Alvin, W., Metaphysical Pathos and the 'Theory of Bureaucracy in Amitai Etzioni (ed.) Complex Organisations :A Sociological Reader, New York : Holt 1961. Pugh, D.S., D.J. Hickson and C.R. Hinings, Writers on Organisations, Harmondsworth : Penguin Books, 1982 (Reprint). Sills, David L., The Volunteers : Means and Ends in a National Organisation, Glencoe ILL : Free Press, 1957. Sills, David L., Voluntary Associations, Sociological Aspects, in International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, vol. 16, New York : The Macmillan Company and the Free Press 1968 pp. 362-379. Westrum, Ron, and Khalil Samaha, Complex Organisations : Growth, Struggle and Change, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice Hall, 1984. Woodward, Joan, Industrial Organisation : Theory and Practice, London : Oxford University Press, 1965.

MODEL ANSWERS Check Your Progress I 11

a) True e) False

b) True f) True

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False g) True

d) True h) True

c) False g) nl.le

d) True h) True

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c) True g) True

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Check Your Progress I1 1.

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Check Your Progress I11 1.

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b) False f) True

Check Your Progress IV 1.

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Organisation and Structure of Voluntary Organisations

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domain, we have developed a FRET approach .... The 100 µL fluorophore-labeled receptors were then separated .... 100 µM TCEP and 3 equivalents of free dye.

Unit 1 QB and Answer.pdf
Cloud computing as a paradigm for big data storage and analytics. The combination of cloud computing and IoT can enable sensing services and. powerful ...

N4 UNIT 1 Dynamics and Space
acceleration in situations where only one force is acting. I can describe & explain risks and benefits associated with space exploration including challenges of ...

UNIT-1 -
From the cubics P3 to the fourth degree polynomials P4. What matrix ... There are 2 bases : v1, v2 ,…..vn and w1, w2,….wn for Rn. If a vector x Є Rn is such that.

Curriculum Unit 1 - Pearson
Curriculum Unit 4. What Would You Rather Be? (Data Analysis) attribute compare data describe equation representation sorting survey tally mark. Curriculum Unit 5. Fish Lengths and Animal Jumps. (Measurement) distance height in-between inch length lon

unit 1 concepts, philosopejy and principles of' extension - eGyanKosh
Bhatnagar and Desai (1987) gave a simple definition of extension. ... the application of the knowledge of this discipline in socio-economic transformation of the ... innovative. The foregoing paragraphs on the definitions and concept of "extension" p

N4 UNIT 1 Dynamics and Space
Deimos which orbits Mars is another example of a moon. • Solar System A solar system consists of a star and all the objects orbiting it as well as all the material in that system. Our Solar System includes the Sun together with the eight planets an

Unit 1 QB and Answer.pdf
Cloud computing as a paradigm for big data storage and analytics. ... ownership of data in the IoT while at the same time respecting security and. privacy in a ...