Understanding linguistic negation: fuzzy sets approaches Silvia Calegari, Davide Ciucci and Paolo Radaelli Dipartimento di Informatica, Sistemistica e Comunicazione, Universit` a degli Studi di Milano Bicocca, via Bicocca degli Arcimboldi 8, 20126 Milano (Italy), {calegari,ciucci,radaelli}@disco.unimib.it

Abstract. Understanding natural languages is a great challenge of computer science. One of the issues that must be tackled is the interpretation of linguistic negations. In this work, we present the problem and propose some solutions grounded in fuzzy sets theory.

1

Introduction

Nowadays a main open issue in Computational Intelligence (CI) is to deal with the statements expressed in natural languages by humans. For example, one of the key topics in the development of the Semantic Web [1] is to enable machines to exchange meaningful information across heterogeneous applications to reach the users goals. The aim is to better understand these requests and so, to give them the answers that satisfies their needs. In the last years, ontologies [2] have played a major role in knowledge representation, both in the theoretic aspects and in many application domains. But the conceptual formalism supported by a typical ontology may not be sufficient to represent uncertain information that is commonly found in many application domains. In literature a recent solution [3] to directly integrate Fuzzy Set Theory in ontology has been proposed with the definition of a fuzzy ontology suited for solving uncertainty reasoning problems. An open issue using fuzzy ontology [3] is how to interpret a negated statement. This is clearly a crucial topic in understanding human requests. It is, indeed, very hard to find a unique formal interpretation of negations and consequently, to enable the system to understand the right meaning of this type of information. Let us notice that different meaning may be associated with a sentence like “Sophie is not small”, such as “Sophie is extremely small” or “Sophie is tall”. Therefore, it is needed to make not only a deeper study of the context but also to reason with the nuances that the “negation” brings. In the first model proposed we have studied a new logical framework based on some linguistic considerations that allow to handle in a more natural way the linguistic negation. The idea behind this model is to differentiate when a negation is used to alter the meaning of a property or to alter the meaning of a linguistic modifier which has been applied to the property, and to handle

differently those two uses. This approach not gives a complete interpretation of the negation because not allows to change the property (i.e. from “small” to “tall”). In [4, 5] Pacholczyk has evaluated all the possible interpretations of the linguistic negation. Thus, the other approach proposed in this paper is an extension of the model developed by Pacholczyk in [4, 6, 5]. This model deals with affirmative or negative information within a fuzzy context. Furthermore, it takes into account combinations of nuanced properties based on conjunction or disjunction connectors. For example, we can consider a sentence like “the woman is not visible in the crowd, she is not medium or tall”. The problem that emerges is the static representation of the model: it allows to establish the right meaning of the “negation” according to the context, but only on a fixed modifiers set. Our purpose is to define a dynamic combination of modifiers in order to allow the users to write their requests without mandatory constraints. For example, we can handle a dynamic chain of modifiers, such as “very very, very very little” and so on. The last approach is also a modification of a model proposed by Pacholczyk in [5] where a formalization of linguistic negation using Rough Sets Theory is introduced. This approach is based on a rough approximation of a semantic of a negated statement. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces the three models. Section 3 presents an example in order to compare the methodologies that we have proposed. Finally, in Section 4 some conclusions are reported.

2

Proposal to handle the Linguistic Negation

In this section, the models analyzed in order to achieve a linguistic negation meaning suited to a given context are presented. 2.1

A two-layered approach to handle linguistic negations

The first approach we are going to propose is based on the consideration that, in an expression like “not extremely high”, “not extremely” represents a single linguistic modifier that alters the meaning of “high”. It is misleading to represent this as the negation of the expression “extremely high”. In effect, a classical approach lead us to formalize the expression into fnot extremely high (x) = 1 − fextremelyhigh , which will results in membership values close to 1 even for elements that are absolutely not high, while the traditional meaning of “not extremely high” represent entities that are high, even if not exceptionally. Our proposal is to handle the meaning of such kind of linguistic expressions introducing two level of linguistic modifiers: apart of standard modifier, we use a new class of functions called MModifier (“modifier of modifier”). MModifiers are functions that can be applied to linguistic modifier to alter their meaning, just like linguistic modifier can alter the semantic of a fuzzy-set. In this approach, the negation “not” can have two different meanings: it can be used as the standard fuzzy set negation (to alter the semantic of a fuzzy

set membership function f (x) into a function f 0 (x) = 1 − f (x)), or it can be a MModifier that affect the semantic associated to a linguistic modifier. Within this framework, each linguistic modifier is univocally defined by two parameters: 1. A type which identifies general effect that the modifier assigns when it is applied to a fuzzy-set. 2. A intensity value that represent the strength of this effect. This approach allows the same effect to be applied in different measures, using different modifier of the same type. Each modifier type is related to a modifier function, which is used to alter the membership value obtained from the fuzzy-set to be applied. Definition 1. The modifier function for a modifier type t is a function Mt : [0, 1] × <+ 7→ [0, 1] which can be applied to a fuzzy-set membership value and a modifier’s intensity value in order to obtain a new intensity value. As said in the definition, modifier functions are parametrized on the basis of the intensity value of each specific modifier. We limited our study to four linguistic hedges [7] categories: concentrators, dilators, contrast intensifiers [7] and negatively hedge described in [8], each one of them corresponds to a one kind of modifier. The function we used as modifier function are those suggested in [9]: 1

– Modifier function for dilators is fdil (x, i) = x i – Modifier function for concentrators is fcon (x, i) = xi – Modifier function for contrast intensifier is  1−i  1  1 xi  if x < 2 2 µ 1−i ¶ fpos (x, i) = 1 1  i 1 − (1 − x) if x ≥  2 2 – Modifier function for negatively hedges is  1  1 1− i 1   xi if x <  2 Ã ! 1 fneg (x, i) = 1 1− i 1   (1 − x) i if x ≥ 1 −  2

1 2 1 2

In the formulas we used, i is the measure for the intensity value of a particular modifier. So, the formula used by a modifier like “very” which is a concentrator with an intensity value of 2, is fvery (x) = fcon (x, 2) = x2 , while another concentrator like “extremely” could have an intensity value of 3 ends up with the formula fextremely (x) = x3 . As can be seen, modifier function have been defined similarly for opposite modifier types (i.e. concentrators and dilators, or contrast identifiers and negatively hedges). Indeed, opposit modifiers have formulas that differ only by replacing the i parameter with its inverse 1i . In fact, a modifier of any type with

an intensity i, 0 < i < 1 works like a modifier of the opposite type. For example, an hypothetical dilator with an intensity of 12 will effectively work like a concentrator, lowering the membership value of the elements of the fuzzy-set it is applied to. MModifiers are function used to alter a linguistic modifier meaning, just as a linguistic modifier alters a fuzzy set membership function. Like linguistic modifiers, each MModifier has a related semantic function which formalizes its meaning. A MModifier semantic function is a function M : <+ 7→ <+ that works by altering the intensity value of the modifier it is applied to. The new linguistic modifier obtained from the application of a mmodifier to an existing linguistic modifier will have the same type (and thus the same modifier function) of the original modifier, but the new intensity. More formally, we can say that: Definition 2. The application of a Mmodifier K, with semantic function SK to a modifier M , with type t and intensity i, is a new linguistic modifier K(M ), whose modifier function is f 0 (x) = ft (x, SK (i)) For now, two MModifier have been defined: the “very” and the “not” Mmodifiers. Their have been named on the basis of the linguistic terms that generally are used to represent their meaning, and aren’t directly related to negations and dilators. The two MModifiers’ semantic function are the following: – Snot (i) = 1 − – Svery (i) = 2i

1 i

With those MModifiers, for example, “very very” will be a concentrator with an intensity of 4. On the other hand, the term √ “not very” will have the following modifier function: f 0 (x) = fcon (x, 1 − 21 ) = x, being a “concentrator” with an intensity value of 21 (which it turns, as we said before, to be a dilator with an intensity of 2 ), while the term “not extremely” will have the formula f 00 (x) = √ 3 2 x (a “concentrator” with an intensity value of 23 ). 2.2

A dynamic extension of the Linguistic Negation Model

The model that we are going to present is an improvement of the basic approach to linguistic negation proposed by Pacholczyk [4, 6, 10]. The semantic interpretation given to the negative information has been made within the context of fuzzy set theory. The idea is to propose an adequate representation of the negative information extending the reference frame of the possible solutions respect the model presented in subsection 2.1. Our purpose is to present the solutions given in order to define a dynamic representation of this approach, for the details underlying the model, we refer to the original papers. The point of view of the Pacholczyk’s model is to define the negative expression of “x is not A” as something corresponding to an affirmative assertion. For example, it is possible to refer to another property P different from A but defined in the same domain and so, the previous statement can receive an interpretation

like “x is P”. Of course there can be different possilities about “P”. All this possible alternatives are called the reference frame of the negation relative to a given concept c. Let us remark that: C is the set of distinct concepts c, Dc is the domain associated with a concept c, M is the set of modifiers, Pc is the set of basic properties associated to the concept c, and MP c is the set of all nuanced (modified) properties associated with c. Then, D = ∪c∈C Dc , P = ∪c∈C Pc and MP = ∪c∈C MP c Given a concept c, the reference frame of a linguistic negation is defined as a function N eg : Dc × MP c 7→ P(Dc ) × P(MP c ). That is given an object and a (negated) nuanced property it returns a set of objects and properties as a possible interpretation of the negation. Differently from[4] and in order to dynamically handle chains of modifiers, we simply set N eg(x, Q) := ({x}, MP c \{Q}). That is, the reference frame, i.e., set of possible interpretations, of “not Q” for x consist in all the nuanced properties except of x Q . In this case and for the sake of simplicity, we set N eg : Dc × MP c 7→ P(MP c ), N eg(x, Q) = MP c \{Q} The necessity to have different interpretations of the linguistic negation is given by the semantic richness provided by natural languages. Indeed, humans use the linguistic nuances (i.e. linguistic adverbs like “very” or “more or less”) in order to better specify their requests. The approach proposed by Pacholczyk takes into account this situation denoting as MP the set containing the nuances of all basic properties P. Furthermore, a new set of fuzzy modifiers has been considered respect to the precision modifiers set presented in 2.1, namely the translation modifiers set. A translation modifier does not modify the shape of a fuzzy set (as precision modifiers do), but only translate it. In this way for each property two different sets of fuzzy modifiers have been defined. In literature [11], one problem is which semantic interpretation corresponds to a chain of modifiers used by humans and how to handle requests based on this type of statements. Pacholczyk’s model defined a static representation of the modifiers set: the semantic interpretation is possible only using the definition of modifiers sets given by the expert during the domain (in our context, the fuzzy ontology) definition. Furthermore, this approach requires that users can make their requests using only the specific modifiers associated to the properties. But in this way users should know all the modifiers sets of all properties before writing a query. Our solution is to establish a unique set of precision modifiers and translation modifiers (the set M) for all properties. The semantic interpretation of a chain of modifiers is given by the algorithm proposed by Khang et al. in [12]. This algorithm allows to define a chain of modifiers of infinite length. For example, given a finite set of fuzzy modifiers like {little, very} a possible set of combinations will be {very very little, little, very very, . . . }. Let us suppose that setP is the set of the precision modifiers and setT is the set of translation modifiers. Then, the number of combinations of the modifiers is: m = (n2 + n), where n = |setP | + |setT |. However, in order to have a semantic meaning close to the expressions used by humans, we have limited to

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1. (a) Number of modifiers applying the Pacholczyk’s model (n := 4). (b) Number of modifiers applying the dynamic extension of Pacholczyk’s model (m := (42 + 4)).

two elements the length of the combinations. For example, we suppose to have a translation set defined as {nearly, exactly} and the precision set defined as {little, very} applied on the property “MEDIUM”. Figure 1 shows the difference between the two models. Thus, we obtain a family of solutions, which, in general, can contain several possibilities. However, if desired, it is possible to give some methods in order to reduce the choice among all the plausible meaning of a negation. We are going to outline two of them. Method 1 As a first step it possible to reduce the elements number of the reference frame through the combination of neighbourhood and similarity relations (compatibility level ρ and tolerance threshold ε, respectively) [4, 6, 10]. These relations allow to determine only a subset of the reference frame as the family of possible solutions. So, applying the definitions given by Pacholczyk we obtain a restricted reference frame, denoted as N egρ,ε (x, A), which consists of the intended meanings of the linguistic negation ρ-compatible with A at x with a tolerance threshold ε. Furthermore, if the user wishes only one interpretation of the negation then the old methodology used by Pacholczyk can not be used. His idea was to choose the most significant degree and having the weakest complexity. The complexity of the nuanced property A is equal to the number of nuances (or modifiers) required in its definitions, i.e. the cardinality of precision and translation modifiers sets. Obviously, this definition is not used in the new extension of the model because we have introduced a unique modifiers sets, during the domain definition, for all properties. Our solution is based on the fuzzy value given by x, namely we take into account the distance between x and the axis of symmetry of the function considered (i.e. we consider symmetric functions). So, the choice of the properties, in order to determine the right meaning of the linguistic negation, is given by the following definition: Definition 3. A choice of a nuanced property P satisfying the following conditions: (I1 ) P ∈ N egρ,ε (x, A), (I2 ) µP (x) = ξ(x, A), (I3 )∀Q ∈ N egρ,ε (x, A), Q = min{(||x, x1 ||, ..., ||x, xQ ||, ..., ||x, xN ||)}, defines “x is P” as the intended meaning of “x is not A”,

where µP : C 7→ [0, 1], ξ(x, A) = max{µQ (x)|Q ∈ N egρ,ε (x, A)} and x1 , ..., xN are the points of symmetry of the N functions. Method 2 This method takes inspiration from [5] and is based on rough sets theory [13]. The basic principle of rough set theory is to approximate an uncertain, fuzzy concept C with a pair of exact concept hL(C), U (C)i such that L(C) ⊆ C ⊆ U (C). L(C), called the lower approximation of C, is interpreted as the necessity of C whereas the upper approximation U (C) represents its possibility. In the present context, the aim is to give an approximation of the set of nuanced properties which are possible interpretations of a given linguistic negation. Thus, L(C) is the pessimistic interpretation, since gives a smaller set of choices and U (C) is the optimistic interpretation. In order to define a rough approximation we need a similarity, i.e., reflexive and symmetric, relation among nuanced properties. In order to obtain it, we suppose to have a similarity relation Sn ⊆ M × M on modifiers and a similarity relation Sp ⊆ Pc × Pc on the properties of a given concept c. Then, the similarity relation S among nuanced properties is defined ∀ mq, lt ∈ MP c , as mq S lt iff qSp t and there exist y ∈ m and z ∈ l such that ySn z. Then, each nuanced property p ∈ MP c generates the granule of knowledge G(p) := {q ∈ MP c : pSq}. Definition 4. The rough approximation of a reference frame N eg(Q) with respect to S and a concept c is the pair hLS (N eg(Q)), US (N eg(Q))i where LS (N eg(Q)) := {p ∈ MP c : G(p) ⊆ N eg(Q)} and US (N eg(Q)) := {pMP c : G(p) ∩ N eg(Q) 6= ∅}\Q.

3

Case of Study

In this section we are going to illustrate the procedure in order to examine the right meaning for a negated expression within the three frameworks. We’ll shown the process of finding the most suitable interpretation for the sentence “that man is not very high”, when this expression is referred to an individual with an height of 179 centimeters. The concept frame we used is shown in Figure 2. Using the first approach, the membership function related to the term “not very

Fig. 2. The concept frame used in the example

high” is obtained by applying the MModifier function to the linguistic modifier “very” and thus, applying again the fuzzy membership function which represents the semantic of the adjective “high”. What we obtain is the function used to represent in fuzzy terms the meaning of the property “not very high”. This function is the only one that represent the property’s semantic for all the peoples’ height which constitutes our example domain. This is a primary difference with respect to Pacholczyk’s approach, where the intended meaning of an expressions containing a negation will differ on the basis of the element to be evaluated. If we call fhigh the membership function related to the fuzzy-set p named “high”, the membership function related to “not very high” will be fhigh (x), according to what we said in Section 2.1. Since an element of height 179 has a membership value of 0.38 membership function of high, its membership function √ for “not very high” will be 0.38 = 0.62. This value sound reasonable with respect to the usual mean of the expression “not very high”, which indicates an element slightly lower than an ordinary “high” element. Now, we tackle the problem of finding the right meaning of the sentence “that man is not very high” applying the extended model presented in Section 2.2. The first problem is to understand which are the values of ρ and ε in order to define the reference frame for the linguistic negation in examination. Using the definitions given by Pacholczyk [4, 6, 10], we obtained a set of negation 0.75compatible with “high” with tolerance threshold 0.35. Furthermore, in order to have a unique interpretation of this negation, we can adopt the Definition 3 where the property chosen is “MEDIUM” with value of 0.63 (shows Figure 2) and the higher membership value of the modifiers is nearly nearly with value 0.179 by the Khans’ algorithm. So, the intended meaning of the statement “that man is not very high” is “that man is nearly nearly medium” with value 0.92 (0.630.179 ). Finally, we give the set of possible choices of the interpretation using method 2. Let us suppose that M={little, very, extremely}={l,v,e}, Pc ={small, medium, tall, high}={s,m,t,h} and that the similarity relations are: very Sn extremely, tall Sp high. Then, MP c ={ls,lm,lt,lh,vs,. . . }. If we consider the sentence “x is not very high”, we have that its reference frame is N eg(x, very high)= MP c \{very high}. Its rough approximation is then, LS (N eg(x, very high))= MP c \G(very high) where G(very high) = {vh, vt, eh, et, vvh, vvt, . . . } and US (N eg(x, very high))=MP c \{very high}. Given the membership value of x to the fuzzy set “very high” we can then calculate the membership of x to all fuzzy sets in LS (N eg(x, very high)) and US (N eg(x, very high)) using again the algorithm described in [12]. As can be seen a wide set of solutions can be obtained, but if desired it is still possible to apply method 1 in order to reduce their number.

4

Conclusions

In this paper we discussed the importance of linguistic-negation interpretation. Three main methods have been proposed in order to solve the problem, two of

them based on fuzzy sets theory and the third one on both fuzzy and rough sets. With the first method, a unique solution is obtained, whereas in the others two we can have a set of possible interpretations. A case of study has also been presented showing the differences among all the approaches. As a future development we plan to integrate these methods in the fuzzy ontology framework [3]. This will also enable us to perform a deeper analysis of the methods, comparing their results on real situations.

References [1] Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, T., Lassila, J.: The semantic web. Scientific American 284 (2001) 34–43 [2] Guarino, N., Giaretta, P.: Ontologies and Knowledge Bases: Towards a Terminological Clarification. In Mars, N., ed.: Towards Very Large Knowledge Bases: Knowledge Building and Knowledge Sharing. IOS Press, Amsterdam (1995) 25–32 [3] Calegari, S., Ciucci, D.: Integrating Fuzzy Logic in Ontologies. In: Proceedings of ICEIS 2006. Number 972-8865-42-2 (2006) 66–73 [4] Pacholczyk, D.: A new approach to linguistic negation of nuanced information in knowledge-based systems. In: AIMSA. (1998) 363–376 [5] Pacholczyk, D., Quafafou, M., Garcia, L.: Optimistic vs. pessimistic interpretation of linguistic negation. In: Proceedings of AIMSA 2002. Volume 2443 of LNCS. (2002) 132–141 [6] Pacholczyk, D.: A new approach to linguistic negation based upon compatibility level and tolerance threshold. In: Proceedings of RSCTC ’98. Volume 1424 of LNCS. (1998) [7] Zadeh, L.A.: The concept of a linguistic variable and its application to approximate reasining — part I, II and III. Information Sciences 8–9 (1975) 199–251, 301–357, 43–80 [8] Zadeh, L.A.: A fuzzy-set-theoretic interpretation of linguistic hedges. Journal of Cybernetics 2 (1972) 4–34 [9] Shi, H., Ward, R., Kharma, N.: Expanding the Definitions of Linguistic Hedges. Joint 9th IFSA World Congress and 20th NAFIPS International Conference (2001) [10] Pacholczyk, D., Quafafou, M.: Towards a linguistic negation approximation based on rough set theory. [14] 542–548 [11] Abulaish, M., Dey, L.: Ontology Based Fuzzy Deductive System to Handle Imprecise Knowledge. In: In Proceedings of InTech 2003. (2003) 271–278 [12] Khang, T.D., St¨ orr, H., H¨ olldobler, S.: A fuzzy description logic with hedges as concept modifiers. In: Third International Conference on Intelligent Technologies and Third Vietnam-Japan Symposium on Fuzzy Systems and Applications. (2002) 25–34 [13] Pawlak, Z.: Rough sets – Theoretical aspects of reasoning about data. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (1991) [14] Arabnia, H.R., Mun, Y., eds.: Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Intelligence IC-AI ’02, June 24-27, 2002. In Arabnia, H.R., Mun, Y., eds.: Volume 2, CSREA Press (2002)

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