The South Asian Lower Palaeolithic Sheila Mishra Department of Archaeology Deccan College Pune411 006.

Abstract The Indian Lower Palaeolithic has been known for over a century and the Indian subcontinent is one of the richest areas for Lower Palaeolithic finds in the world. Over the last few decades the spectacular fossil hominid finds from South and East Africa and the increasing sophistication of studies from Europe have overshadowed the rich Indian Lower Palaeolithic record. Accounts of the early phases of human evolution virtually ignore or dismiss the Indian evidence. There have been only a few reviews (Jayaswal 1978; Jacobson 1979; Paddayya 1984; Misra 1987; Misra 1989a; Sali 1990a) of the Lower Palaeolithic in South Asia since Sankalia's book (Sankalia 1974) although significant new work has been done since. For this reason an account of the current status of work on the Lower Palaeolithicin South Asia is anecessity. In this paper I will first review the history of work on the Lower Palaeolithic in South Asia in the context of changing theoretical orientations and research methodologies. A region-wise discussion of recent work follows. Later, the distribution, variation, chronology, and site context of the South Asian Lower Palaeolithic sites will be discussed.

Development of Lower Palaeolithic Research in South Asia The first discoveries of stone tools in the Indian subcontinent were made by geologists in the last century (Foote 1866; Ball 1880; Theobold 1860; Cockburn 1888) Preeminent among these geologists was Foote who first discovered handaxes from Pallavaram near Madras in 1863 (Foote 1866). Foote, during a lifetime of work, mainly in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, collected Stone Age material from many parts of peninsular India. He (1916), donated his artefact collection to the Madras Museum and prepared a catalogue for it, in which he distinguished the Indian Palaeolithic material from that of the Neolithic. This phase of work is important because it set the trend in India for the close collaboration between prehistorians and geologists in Palaeolithic studies which continues to the present. In the 1920s Cammiade and Burkitt (1930) divided the Indian Stone Age into four series based on differences in technology seen in collections from the Andhra coastal region. This sub-division more or less coincided with the division of Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic which are in use today. In the late 1930s De Terra and Paterson (1939) tried to relate the Indian Stone Age sequence to the Quater-

nary glacial sequence. This work had great influence on later workers. Its great success, which was also its shortcoming, was the global framework and meaning it imparted to the South Asian Palaeolithic. Prehistoric research in the post-Independence period was dominated by Sankalia and his students although important contributions were made by the Universities of Calcutta (Bose and Sen 1948; Bose; Gupta and Bose 1960; Sen and Ghosh 1960; Ghosh 1970; Datta 1991), Baroda (Wainwright and Hedge 1964; Allchin and Goudie 1971; Allchin and Hedge 1969; 1970; Allchin et al. 1978; Subrarnanium and Sireesha 1988-89), Allahabad (Sharma 1973; Sinha 1991) and Banaras Hindu (Pant 1982; Jayasawal 1978; 1982) and the Indian Archaeological Survey (Krishnaswami 1938; Soundara Rajan 1952; Joshi 1961). Sankalia was initially interested in building up a sequence of Stone Age industries based on Quaternary stratigraphy. Zeuner, who visited India in the 1950s and worked with Sankalia and others was an important influence in linking Prehistoric and Quaternary studies. The recovery of archaeological material in the context of Quaternary deposits was emphasised in the initial phase of research (Joshi 1955; Sankalia 1946; 1952; 1956; Zeuner 1950; 1963). In the 1960s a shift to better documentation of the archaeological record can be seen. A thorough typo-

Man and Environment XIX (1-2)- 1994

technoiogical study of excavated assemblages became the norm. After the very early work at Mayurbhanj (Bose and Sen 1948), one of the earliest sites to be excavated was Lalitpur (Singh 1956), where an Acheulian assemblage on Bundelkand Gneiss was recovered from a thin sedimentlsoil cover in the Bundelkhand region. Khatri's (1962) claim that the gravel exposed at Mahadeo Piparia in the central Narmada contained an industry equivalent to the Oldowan led to its excavation by Supekar (1968; 1985) who found everything from choppers and handaxes on quartzite to scrapers on chert and chalcedony in the gravel. Supekar's excavation led to an important rethinking of the integrity of archaeological assemblages in alluvial deposits. The joint Deccan College-Berkeley University fieldwork in the Narmada with McGown in 1964 further led to a questioning of De Terra and Paterson's 1939 stratigraphy and the alluvial context of the sites (Sankalia 1974: 110). Better documentation of gravel sites led to the excavation of Chirki-Nevasa (Corvinus 1967; 1968-69; 1970; 1975; 1981; Ansari and Pappu 1975; Ansari and Murty 1975; Rajaguru and Pappu 1976), Gangapur (Joshi et al. 1966), Anagwadi (Pappu 1974), and Durkhadi Nala (Armand 1983). The cave sites of Adamgarh (Joshi 1975); Bhimbetka (Misra 1978), and Betamcherla (Murty 1966) were excavated in the hope of recovering Stone Age material in a better context. These excavations signalled an increasing concern for interpreting the archaeological record in terms of past human behaviour. Paddayya advocated the intensive survey of small regions, to locate "primary" sites (Paddayya 1978). His work in the Shorapur Doab region of Karnataka, yielded more than 60 Acheulian localities, some of which he excavated. However, he found it was not a straightforward matter to interpret the evidence (Paddayya 1982a; Strauss 1983) and in recent years has shifted his research efforts towards understanding site formation processes (Paddayya 1989; Paddayya and Petraglia 1993). A second approach was to have a better understanding of the Quaternary geological record with more emphasis on palaeoenvironmental studies. Recently Pappu (in press) has reviewed the contribution of geologists to prehistoric research in India. This approach was a result of the induction of a number of geologists into the Archaeology Department of Deccan College by Sankalia. This reflected the close link Sankalia saw between Quaternary geology and prehistory. Beginning in the 1960s Rajaguru began detailed work on the Mula-Mutha drainage around Pune (Rajaguru 1969; 1970; Rajaguru and Badam 1984; Rajaguru and Hedge 1973; Rajaguru and Kale 1985). Around the same period Corvinus began her work on the Pravara River, a tributary of the Godavari (Corvinus 1983). Badam, a palaeontologist joined the Department in the 1972. Pappu developed a geomorphic model for understanding the Stone Age sites (Pappu 1981; 1985). Joshi, one of Sankalia's early students, also joined the Deccan College in the 1970s after years of working with the ASI. Throughout this decade

therefore prehistoric research was strongly integrated into Quaternary studies. The title of this journal Man and Environment and the name of the Society which publishes it 'The Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies' reflects this background. In recent years major research projects involve the collaboration of specialists from both prehistory and geology. Some of these projects are the'oxford-Baroda team (Allchin and Goudie 1971; Allchin et al. 1978), which worked in the Thar Desert and Gujarat in the early 1970s. The Berkeley-Allahabad team, (Sharma and Clark 1983; Clark and Williams 1986; 1990; Williams and Royce 1982; 1983; Williams and Clarke 1984; Kenoyer and Pal 1983; Misra et al. 1983; Blumenschine et al. 1983) carried out joint field work in the middle Son valley in 1980 and 1981. The Didwana project, begun in 1980, focused on the Thar desert, with Misra and Rajaguru, from Deccan College, collaborating with the Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, the Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, CNRS, France and Australian National University, Australia (Agrawal et al. 1980; Gaillard et al. 1983; 1985; 1986; Misra et al. 1982; Misra and Rajaguru 1989 Misra 1989b; Wassen et al. 1983). From 1981-1989, the British Archaeological Mission to Pakistan (Allchin 1981; Dennell 1984; 1989; Dennell and Rendell 1991; Dennell et al. 1988 a and b; Rendell and Dennell 1985; Rendell et al. 1989) carried out important work in the Sub-Himalayan region of Pakistan. Individual scholars have continued to make contributions as for example, the excavation of the Acheulian site of Paisra, in Bihar by Pant and Jayaswal (1991) and Maihar site by Pandey and Pal (1988) and the discovery of Acheulian sites in Nepal (Corvinus 1990, 1994) and Goa (Goudeller and Korisettar 1993). In the Shorapur Doab region Paddayya continued his research into the Acheulian into the 1980s. Pappu and Deo (1994) worked on the geomorphological aspects of the Acheulian in the Kalgadi basin.

The Indian Subcontinent: Geographical Regions The Indian subcontinent can be divided into three major geographical regions. The collision of the Indian plate with Asia, has resulted in the Himalayan mountains and the fringing uplifted sediments, comprising the Siwalik frontal range. The Siwalik frontal range along with the dun valleys and piedmont of the lesser Himalayan range form the first geographic region. The Himalayan rivers, with their supply of sediment and water from the Himalayas, have created a vast alluvial plain, the Indo-Ganga plain, which comprises the second of the three major sub-divisions. To the south of the Indo-Ganga plain, the Indian Peninsula, an ancient continental shield forms the third geographic sub-division. Lower Palaeolithic sites have been found in the Siwalik frontal range and the peninsular region. The Indo-Ganga plain is devoid of Lower Palaeolithic sites, as the surfaces

South Asian Lower Palaeolithic

exposed during the Lower Palaeolithic are now deeply buried. Where bedrock is exposed, as in the Delhi ridge area, near Delhi, Late Acheulian material has been found (Sharma 1993; Chakrabarti and Lahiri 1987; Pande 1985).

The Sub-HimalayanRegion The Sub-Himalayan region has been considered as a region of one of the non-Acheulian Lower Palaeolithic industries (Movius 1948), the Soan. A major focus of work on the Lower Palaeolithic in this region, therefore has been to understand the Soan phenomenon in relation to the Acheulian (Sen 1955; Grazoisi 1964; Krantz 1972; Johnson 1972; La1 1956; Joshi et a1 1975; 1978; Davies 1986; Mohapatra 1966; 1975; 1976; 1981; 1982; 1990; Mohapatra and Singh 1979; 1981). Most workers consider that the Soan/Acheulian differences are related to biocultural differences, or adaptations to different environments. The discovery of a number of Acheulian sites in the SubHimalayan region, has destroyed the geographical identity of the Soan (Mohapatra 1982; Corvinus 1990). Rendell and Dennell(1985) have found handaxes at Jalapur and Dina in the Jhelum basin in sediments just above the BruhnesMatumayama boundary, and date them to between .5 to .7 myr. Mohapatra, finds that the Acheulian occurs in a geomorphic context which is later than the Soan, and considers that the Acheulian "just touched the outer fringe of the western Sub-Himalayas for a short while" (Mohapatra 1990: 257). He notices that while the Soanian artefacts are mainly made on cobbles, the Acheulian utilized large flakes detached from boulders for preparing bifaces. Gaillard (1994) has contrasted the reduction sequences of the Early Acheulian from Singi Talav with some of the Soan assemblages, and finds the technologies are distinctive, although at the same level of complexity. Recently, Corvinus (1994) has located two Acheulian sites in Nepal. The Acheulian in Nepal occurs in the earliest post-Siwalik sediments, matching Mohapatra's observations that the Acheulian dates from the post-Siwalik geomorphological contexts. While the distinctiveness of the Soan tradition is fairly well documented, the explanation for this variation is not well understood. Archaeologists have traditionally attributed differences in artefacts to differences in cultures, and have only gradually realized that in the Lower Palaeolithic period we do not know if cultural differences existed. Presently, differences in raw material and preservation along with functional and use history of the artefacts are considered more important factors in explaining variations in the Lower Palaeolithic. Dennell and Rendell (1991), do not consider the Soan as forming a distinct entity from the Acheulian. Jayaswal(1982) shows that pebble tools are a part of many of the Acheulian industries from the peninsular region. The British Archaeological Mission to Pakistan made important contributions to the South Asian Lower

Palaeolithic during their work in the 1980s. Besides the dating of handaxes in the Jhelum basin, already mentioned, at Riwat an artefact was recovered from a context dated to about 1.9 myr (Dennell et al. 1988 a and b). In the Pabbi Hills area a rich fossil collection was recovered from early Pleistocene contexts (1.2 to 2.6 myr). A possible preAcheulian stone tool assemblage was recovered from the same contexts (Dennell 1989). This assemblage was made up of isolated artefacts and none were recovered from secure, in situ context. The material does not have well defined typological and technological features. For these reasons, acknowledged by the British team, the Pabbi Hills material, has not been accepted as definite evidence of stone tool making in the Indian subcontinent. Assemblages from the Sungara Formation, on the Omo River, in East Africa, which belong to a similar time span and geomorphic setting are quite similar to the Pabbi Hills material. They are described as "smashed quartz pebbles" (Merrick and Merrick 1976). They have not been challenged as stone tools, because of their proximity to the Koobi Fora localities. Therefore, while retaining reservations about the Pabbi Hills material, it should not be dismissed. Perhaps, this is what stone tools in a setting where tools are made on small quartz pebbles look like at this early period of time. Dennell and Rendell (1991) discussed the stratigraphy and archaeological typology of De Terra and Paterson and show how it relates to the popular theories of its time. They suggest that the work has outlived its usefulness and no longer contributes to our understanding of the prehistoric archaeology or Quaternary stratigraphy of the region.

Thar Desert Pioneering work on the Palaeolithic in the Rajasthan desert was done by Misra, who identified Lower Palaeolithic assemblages from the Luni, Berach and Gambhiri River basins in the 1960s (Misra 1961; 1962). Allchin et al.'s (1978) publication, the outcome of a joint project, was important in showing the presence of Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic sites in the Thar desert. They integrated the archaeological evidence with the palaeoclimatic evidence and suggested that the Middle Palaeolithic was associated with a palaeosol indicating a climate more humid than that of today. Their important contribution was to make a strong case that there had been periods of greater aridity than the present in the Pleistocene. They suggested that many of the present-day sand dunes are relict forms and that evidence for former aeolian features extend as far as Baroda. The present-day zone of active d u i s is in the regions where annual rainfall is from 100 to of 600 to 800 mm. This

South Asian Lower Palaeolithic

the surfacelrubble context. Jacobson (1985) located 90 sites in Raisen District in the divide between the Narmada and Betwa. He considered that these sites were probably never buried. Very few handaxes were recovered from these assemblages, which were dominated by flake scrapers, levallvois and disc cores. The cave sites of Adamgarh and Bhimbetka also yielded similar material. Recently the AS1 has undertaken exploration of the region to be submerged by the Indira Sagar Dam on the Narmada at Punasa. Some new sites have been reported in IAR (87-88: 43-44, 88-89: 43-44), and excavations were carried out in a number of localities around the village of Balwada (Ota 1992). In the downstream region, a second alluvial basin, the Nimar plains was studied by Mishra. Mishra developed the methodology of relative dating for building up Quaternary stratigraphy during this study (Mishra 1985; Mishra et al. 1988). A Late Acheulian assemblage was associated with a weathered gravel at Gangatkheri, while at Mehtakheri large quartzite flakes were recovered from a similar gravel. In the Gujarat part of the Narmada Allchin, Hedge and Goudie (Allchin and Hedge 1969, 1970; Allchin and Goudie 1971) worked on the alluvial stratigraphy. They identified two Pleistocene terraces. Recently Chamyal and Merh (1992) have studied the Quaternary stratigraphy, with an emphasis on palaeosols.

Tapi Basin Sali did extensive explorations in the Tapi basin, especially the western tributaries (Sali 1990, 1973). Sali was convinced of the importance of Quaternary tectonic movements in the Tapi basin (Sali 1970). He discovered a number of Lower Palaeolithic sites of which the site of Yesar-Bhadne (Sali 1973-74) is the most important. This site yielded a Late Acheulian assemblage from an alluvial context.

Godavari Basin Two important Lower Palaeolithic sites in the Godavari basin are Nevasa (Corvinus 1983; Mishra in press) with an Early Acheulian assemblage and Gangapur with a Late Acheulian assemblage. Recently, the cement from the Lower Palaeolithic gravel at Nevasa has been dated to > 400 kyr (Kale 1990; Atkinson et al. 1990), making it one of the earliest Acheulian sites in India. I had argued (1986) that the "Nevasian" from Nevasa is part of the Acheulian rather than a Middle Palaeolithic flake industry. I had suggested that the light duty component of the Acheulian was made on both basalt and silicious rocks, while the heavy duty component was made almost entirely on basalt as nodules of silicious rocks are mostly of small size. The differential weathering of the siliceous versus basalt tools has resulted in some gravels containing only the siliceous light duty component of the Acheulian which is the "Nevasian."

Bhima Basin Two new sites have been reported from the Bhima basin, Bori (Kale et al. 1986; Korisettar et al. 1988 b) and Morgoan (IAR 88-89: 69), both associated with a tephra horizon (Kale et al. 1993). This tephra horizon was initially dated at Bori to 1.4 myr ago (Korisettar et al. 1988a). Further dating using the "ArI4Ar method which eliminates the argon component absorbed from the atmosphere, has revised the date to around 0.65 myr ago (Somayajulu: personal communication). The artefact assemblage from both sites is Early Acheulian in character.

Krishna Basin Parts of the Krishna drainage were explored by Joshi (1955), and later by Pappu (1974), who excavated the site of Anagwadi. Pappu later classified the Acheulian site contexts on the basis of geomorphological criteria and reviewed the work done in the area to date (Pappu 1981, 1985, 1990). His classification was into alluvial, coastal, slope, surface and cave or rock-shelter sites (Pappu 1985). In the late 1980s Pappu and Deo (1994) undertook a detailed geomorphic analysis of the Acheulian locations in the Kaldgi basin. The site of Yedurwadi, on the Krishna, near Miraj is an important new contribution to the South Asian Lower Palaeolithic. Kale et al. (1986) have recovered an Early Acheulian assemblage from a gravel which buried a number of trees, preserved as calcrete casts. These calcified trees have been dated by T h N method to >400kyr (Kale 1990; Atkinson et al. 1990). The assemblage is made on doleritic basalt. The presence of one quartzite spheroid is interesting as the nearest outcrop of quartzite is more than 50 km away. This would imply that man had "curated" the quartzite spheriod for at least a few days. Over the last two decades Paddayya has worked in the Hungsi and Baichabal valleys. By intensively surveying the area on foot, he located over 60 Acheulian localities (Paddayya l975,1976,1977a, 1977b, 1979,1982,1985, 1987a, 1987c, 1989, 1991). Paddayya and Petraglia (1993: 64) consider that most of the sites are in "non-fluviatile sedimentary contexts". The artefact horizon is usually close to the surface, within the black soil or, in the case of a few localities, within a brown clay which underlies a black soil horizon. These horizons overlie up to three metres of weathered bedrock (Paddayya 1989) which is usually granite. In a number of localities fossil bones were found in the same context as the Acheulian artefacts (Paddayya 1985). The Acheulian varies in typological and technological characters (Paddayya 1982b), with most of the Hungsi localities belonging to the "Early Acheulian" while some of the Fatehpur localities are "Late Acheulian." While the Early Acheulian is associated with fossils saturated in fluorine (FluorineJPhosphate ratios of 6-8), the Late

Man and Environment XIX (1-2) - 1994

Acheulian is associated with fossils having a Fluorinel Phosphate ratio of 5-6 (Ksirsagar and Paddayya 1988-89). Artefacts are made on all the rock types available in the region, including siliceous limestone, granite, pegmatite, schist and dolerite. Paddayya and Petraglia (1993: 64) classify the sites into fluvial, colluvial, sheetwash and deflationary occurrences. Only the fluvial occurrences, which they equate with assemblages occurring in river gravels, are considered equivalent to what is traditionally called "secondary" sites. The most common occurrence is what they have labelled as deflationary, and "non-fluviatile, sedimentary". This terminology is confusing and no evidence is presented to show that the sites have been deflated. Fluvial sediments range from clays to boulders and the term should not be restricted to gravels alone. Aeolian and glacial are the main non-fluvial geomorphic processes. Aeolian deposition is a possibility, as most of the Quaternary period was more arid than the present. Clark and Williams (1991) suggest that silts found away from the Son river are loess. Zeuner, considered the possibility that some of the sediments exposed by the Narmada in Gujarat were loess. However, most of the Pleistocene silty deposits in western India are definitely fluvial, as seen in surviving sedimentary structures and poor sorting. Soils have been forming on silty alluvium throughout the Quaternary. In Maharashtra an Early Holocene palaeosol horizon developed on Quaternary alluvium has been recognized for some time (Kajale et al. 1976). Recently, a second horizon, found below late Pleistocene gravels containing microliths has been seen at Nevasa, Chandoli and Kalas (Mishra et al. in press). Most of the Hungsi-Baichabal sites have probably been buried by fluvial silts, which have been subsequently pedogenized. The younger sites are more deeply covered and the sediment and soil horizons are both present, as the entire sediment has not been pedogenised. The weathering of bedrock seen below the tools is a feature inherited from the Tertiary, as all the Quaternary gravels overlie minimally weathered bedrock (Mishra 1994). This weathered regolith has been covered by a sediment, fluvial or aeolian, which has covered the artefacts preserving them from destruction. It appears that the typologically advanced Acheulian has a greater depth of soillsediment cover, which would support the idea of Paddayya and Petraglia that there have been episodes of erosion of the covering sediment. Within this low energy sedimentary environment, considerable variation in the disturbance of the assemblages is seen in the size distributions, rounding, patination and weathering of the artefacts studied by Paddayya and Petraglia (1993: 7 1).

Peninsular Coast

West Coast Saurashtra In Saurashtra, Lele (1989) and later Marathe (1981) studied the miliolite deposits in relation to the Lower Palaeolithic. They tried to relate the archaeological evidence to the miliolite stratigraphy and ultimately to the record of Quaternary sea level fluctuations. Marathe located in situ Acheulian tools in gravels at Junagarh and Umrethi which are graded to a low sea level. The miliolite overlying these gravels is formed of foramanifera blown inland from the exposed continental shelf. Miliolite was dated by the ThAJ method at Umrethi and Junagarh to 95 kyr and 67 kyr, and this proved the first application of absolute dating to the Lower Palaeolithic in India (Baskaran et al. 1976). Chakrabarti, excavated a Late Acheulian gravel context at Samadhialia (Chakrabarti 1979). The artefacts were recovered from a colluvial gravel deposit about 1.20 m thick. Most of the artefacts were of volcanic rocks and showed little abrasion. In comparison to the surface Acheulian assemblages there was a much lower proportion of finished tools to waste products showing that the context was comparatively less modified. Konkan In the Konkan region, a number of non-biface stone tool collections of possible Lower Palaeolithic age have been reported. Chitale (IAR 1964-65 and 1965-66) has reported a number of assemblages in the Dangs area of the south Gujarat coast. These are dominated by choppers. Joshi and Bopardikar (1972) discovered a number of chopper assemblages in the Konkan. Guzder (1980) discovered four sites in the Malvan-Ratnagiri region which had assemblages of quartzite flakes. She excavated the site of Haddi near Malvan, close to the present sea level. Rajendran (1989) has reported quartz pebble tools from the Kerala coast. Recently Goudeller and Korisettar (1993) have reported Acheulian bifaces from four localities in the Dudhsagar basin of Goa. East Coast

.

In contrast to the west coast, the east coast is one of the classic Acheulian localities. Lower Palaeolithic artefacts occur in surfacelrubble contexts as well in alluvial gravels. Typologically, these industries belong mostly to the Late Acheulian. Subrahmanyam and Sireesha (1989) have related the Acheulian to a sea level 7 m AMSL.

Distribution of Lower Palaeolithic Sites in South Asia Stone tools have been found for over a century (Foote 1866), and now have been reported from all parts of the Subcontinent where surfaces or deposits of the early to

South Asian Lower Palaeolithic

middle Quaternary period are found. The "classical" Lower Palaeolithic localities are those parts of peninsular India where quartzites (mainly Pre cambrian Kaladgi, Cuddapah and Vindhyan formations) outcrop in parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and central India. In these areas Lower Palaeolithic artefacts occur in a surfacelrubble context. In other regions Lower Palaeolithic artefacts occur in Quaternary sediments. In Maharashtra and Gujarat artefacts have been recovered from alluvial sediments and in playatdune sediments in Rajasthan. The vast Indo-Gangetic plain is devoid of Lower Palaeolithic sites as surfaces exposed during that period are now deeply buried. However, the presence of Late Acheulian artefacts on the Delhi ridge, implies that this region also supported human populations during the Lower Palaeolithic period. One of the classic Quaternary sequences comes from the Siwaliksin the foothills of the Himalayas, representing uplifted sediments deposited by the Himalayan rivers. Lower Palaeolithic tools have been found in this region.

Variation in the Lower Palaeolithic in South Asia Two cultural or technological traditions, the Acheulian and the Soan, have been attributed to the Lower Palaeolithic in India. Movius (1944) considered that the Soan belonged to the Asian ChopperKhopping Tool tradition with a distribution in the Sub-Himalayan regions while the Acheulian was distributed in peninsular India. This idea of two geographically separated or at least focused Lower Palaeolithic traditions has been one of the major research interests of Indian prehistorians. However, this geographic distinctiveness of the two traditions can no longer be maintained. While a number of chopperkhopping tool assemblages have been found in the Peninsula, e.g. Durkhadi (Armand 1981), Lahchura, (Pant 1982), Acheulian tools have been reported from a number of locations in the Sub-Himalayan region (Mohapatra 1982; Corvinus 1994; Dennell and Rendell 1985). Dennell has therefore questioned the separate identity of the Soan. Mohapatra (1990) however, finds that the two traditions occur in separate geomorphic contexts. Jayaswal(1982) documents the presence of choppers and chopping tools in the assemblages from the peninsular region. Some changes in flaking technology are seen in time but cruder technology continues along with advanced technology in some contexts. Misra (1978) has divided the excavated Acheulian assemblages into early and late. This appears to relate to chronological differences although stratigraphy and dating are not available to confirm this.

Age of the Lower Palaeolithic in South Asia Evidence to push back the antiquity of the South Asian Lower Palaeolithic has been available only recently. There is suggestive evidence that man may have arrived in the region more than a million years ago from the Riwat site in Pakistan, where an artefact has been found in a 2 myr old

gravel (Dennell et al. 1989 a and b). The tephra from the site of Bori has been dated to 1.4 myr (Korisettar et al. I988a and b). The tephra from Morgoan (Kale et al. 1993) is probably of the same age as the Bori tephra. Early Acheulian handaxes have been found at Morgoan also (IAR 88-89: 69). Four Early Acheulian sites, Singi Talav (Raghvan et al. 1989), Yedurwadi, Nevasa (Atkinson et a1 1989; Kale 1990) and Teggihalli (Szabo et al. 1990) have been dated by the Th/U method, and have been shown to be older than 350 kyr (Mishra 1992). The Bori tephra has also been dated to >400 kyr by the Th/U method (IAR 88-89: 63). Rendell and Dennell(1985) have also found Acheulian artefacts in the Potwar region, in gravels just above the Bruhnes-Matuyama boundary. This evidence does suggest that the age of the South Asian Lower Palaeolithic is comparable to that of other Old World areas.

Site Contexts: the Nature of the Lower Palaeolithic Archaeological Record and its Interpretation One of the major concerns of recent work on the Lower Palaeolithic in South Asia is in understanding the formation of the archaeological record. Initially, this expressed itself in shifting emphasis away from sites which were perceived as "secondary" towards contexts perceived as less disturbed by geological processes. The geomorphic settings of the sites were classified (Pappu 1985; Paddayya and Petraglia 1993). It was soon realized that the dichotomy between "primary" and "secondary" sites was misleading, and that all sites were disturbed to some extent. Methods of evaluating the extent of disturbance of sites were explored. Paddayya and Petraglia (1993) use size, abrasion and geological context to evaluate the site formation of some of the Hungsi-Baichbal sites. While Petraglia and Nash (1987) and Paddayya (1987b) favour an experimental approach to understanding how geological processes affect archaeological sites, I feel that the archaeological record and an understanding of geological processes provides us with information to interpret the archaeological context. Some of these interpretations of the Lower Palaeolithic site formation processes are given below.

Lower Palaeolithic "Sites" are Preserved Only in Exceptional Circumstances If one considers the probable number of stone tools made by hominid populations over the last half a million years one immediately realizes that the Lower Palaeolithic archaeological record is a record of the rare survival of a few artefacts. Many parts of the Subcontinent are devoid of sites, although there is no ecological difference from areas where sites are common. In 1982 I, argued (Mishra 1982) that the rarity of Lower Palaeolithic sites in those parts of the Indian peninsula where Deccan Trap basalt outcrops is due to the non-survival of basalt tools on the surface. This is probable as Acheulian artefacts are found in quite a few

Man and Environment XZX (1-2)- 1994

Quaternary gravels in the Deccan Trap area. Basalt pebbles in such gravels show significant weathering. The pattern seen in the distribution of sites reflects the working of geological processes such as weathering, transport and burial rather than hominid activities.

Lower Palaeolithic Surface Sites: How Should they be Interpreted? The weathering of basalt tools on the surface in fact leads to the question of the preservation of Lower Palaeolithic sites at the surface. In all the regions in peninsular India which have quartzite bedrock handaxes do occur on the surface. However, even in these areas tools are found in distinct geomorphic settings (Jacobsen 1985; Pappu 1985) and associated with Middle Palaeolithic artefacts. Most of the surface Acheulian assemblages belong to the Late Acheulian. All the Early Acheulian sites (Hungsi, Yedurwadi, Morgoan, Bori, Singi Talav, Chirki-Nevasa and Anagwadi) are in a buried context. While the geological processes are less dynamic on the surface than in a fluvial setting, the time period over which the processes act is so much longer for the surface context that for old sites the fluvial context is less modified than the surface context.

Duration of Artefact Accumulation for Lower Palaeolithic Sites Lower Palaeolithic sites are rarely locations where artefacts accumulated in a few well defined episodes of human activity. The duration over which artefacts in any context accumulated is variable, and it is important to develop methods to evaluate the duration of time a particular context represents. The sites which do exist are small glimpses into the past, which we must use to infer what is missing, not take them as the whole story. While it is worth the effort to concentrate on that part of the archaeological record which is less modified by natural formation processes, unless we tackle the problem of interpreting the record as a whole and as it is, we will not gain any fresh insight into the Palaeolithic. Observations of present-day human activities and geological processes have to some extent generated false expectations of the archaeological record. When the archaeological record does not yield 'primary' sites which can be interpreted in terms of these expectations, large of the record are written off, - parts . ignoring their potential to inform us about human behaviour in the past.

Nature of the Geological Record Most of the Indian subcontinent has had a semi-arid and monsoonal climate throughout the Quaternary. The landscape has been stable through this period as neither climate nor tectonic factors have been dynamic. Many features, such as the laterite formations and deep weathering of

bedrock are inherited from the Tertiary. Most bedrock erosion is also a Tertiary feature. Quaternary climate has been mostly arid to semi-arid, with only brief humid phases. The present climate is one of the humid phases of the Quaternary. Quaternary geological processes are episodic in nature. Both deposition and erosion occur over short time periods, with long periods of stability in between. Most of the Quaternary deposits have accumulated in short episodes of aggradation. This means that the sedimentary context of sites is often not as disturbed as conventionally thought. The episodic nature of the deposits can be seen in the immaturity of the gravel lithologies, and preservation of tephra, trees, and the very common occurrence of "mint" condition artefacts within pebbly gravels. Since deposition is episodic, it is rare that particular lithounits are really contemporary. This can be seen in the Son valley study (Sharma and Clark 1983), where the archaeological material indicated a much wider time span than the geologists had anticipated. Weathering of pebbles susceptible to weathering such as basalt can be used to relatively date the Quaternary deposits. Fluorine/Phosphate ratios of fossils also provide a method for relative dating (Kshirsagar 1994). These methods allow us to separate Holocene, late Pleistocene and earlier than late Pleistocene units in most regions. The "earlier than late Pleistocene" units are difficult to separate, but we are not justified in correlating them.

Significance and Potential of the Lower Palaeolithic Record in South Asia South Asia is one of the regions of the world with a long record of hominid occupation. Man has adapted to varying environments and changing environments in this region. The record of continuous and dense habitation seen in the fact that artefacts occur in almost all the Quaternary deposits in India, is perhaps a challenge to the currently popular "Out of Africa" model for modern human origins. It is ironic that while South Asia has many Lower Palaeolithic sites, only one hominid fossil has been found to date (Sonakia 1984), while Indonesia has yielded dozens of hominid fossils but no secure artefact associations. Further progress will be made when the Quaternary and Palaeolithic records are integrated and methods developed to understand both the artefacts and their context.

References Agrawal, D.P., P.S. Datta, Z. Hussain, R.V. Krishnamurty, V.N. Misra, S.N. Rajaguru, and P.K. Thomas 1980. Palaeoclimate, Stratigraphy and Prehistory in North and West Rajasthan, Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences 89(1): 51-66.

South Asian Lower Palaeolithic

Ahasan, S.M.K. 1993. A Study of Palaeolithic Site Formation Processes in Subhumid Environment of Central lndia with Special Reference to Samnapur Palaeolithic Site (Madhya Pradesh). Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: University of Poona. Ahmed, N. 1984. The Stone Age Cultures of the Middle Son Valley. New Delhi: Ramanand Vidya Bhavan. Allchin, B. 1981. The Palaeolithic of the Potwar Plateau, Punjab: a Fresh Approach, Palaeorient 7(1): 123124. Allchin, B. and A. Goudie 1971. Dunes, Aridity and Early Man in Gujarat, Western India, Man 6: 248-265. Allchin;B., A. Goudie and K.T.M. Hegde 1978. The Prehistory and Palaeogeography of the Great Indian Desert. London: Academic Press. Allchin, B. and K.T.M. Hegde 1969. The Background of Early Man in the Narmada Valley, Gujarat: a Preliminary Report of the 1969 Season's Fieldwork, Journal of the MS. University of Baroda 18(1): 141-146. Allchin, B. and K.T.M. Hegde 1970. The Background of Early Man in the Narmada Valley, Gujarat: a Preliminary Report of the 1970 Season's Fieldwork, Journal of the M.S. University of Baroda 19(1): 15-32. Ansari, Z.D. and M.L.K. Murty 1976. The Acheulian Horizon at Chirki-Nevasa and Its Chronological Implications, Bulletin of the Deccan College PostGraduate and Research Institute 36: 8-14 Ansari, Z.D. and R.S. Pappu 1975. Some Observations on the Excavation at Chirki Nevasa Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 35: 1-8. Armand, J. 1983. Archaeological Excavation in Durkhadi Nala: an Early Palaeolithic Pebble Tool Workshop in Central India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Atkinson, T.C., P.J. Rowe, N.J. Powar, and V.S. Kale 1990. Unpublished Report Submitted to the Natural Environmental Research Council (U.K.) Badam, G.L. 1982. Biostratigraphy of the Central Narmada Valley - a Reappraisal, in Indian Archaeology, New Perspectives (R.K. Sharma Ed.), pp. 38-47. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Ball, V. 1880. Jungle Life in India. London: Thos De La Rue & Co. Baskaran, M., A.R. Marathe, S.N. Rajaguru, and B.L.K. Somayajulu 1986. Geochronology of Palaeolithic Cultures in Hiran Valley, Saurashtra, India, Journal of Archaeological Science 4 13: 505-5 1.

Blumenshine, R.J., S.A. Brandt and J.D. Clark 1983. Excavation and Analysis of Middle Palaeolithic Artefacts from Patparra, Madhya Pradesh, in Palaeoenvironments and Prehistory in the Middle Son Valley (G.R. Sharma and J.D. Clark Eds.), pp 39- 100. Allahabad: Abinash Prakashan. Bose, N. K., P.C. Gupta and A. Bose 1960. Palaeoliths from Monghyr District, Bihar, Man in India 40(1): 7374. Bose, N.K. and D. Sen 1948 Excavations in Mayurbhanj. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. Cammiade, L.A. and M.C. Burkitt 1930. Fresh Light on the Stone Age in Southeast India, Antiquity 4: 327-39. Chamyal, L.S. and S.S. Merh 1992. Sequence Stratigraphy and Surface Quaternary Deposits in the Semiarid Basins of Gujarat, Man and Environment 17(1): 33-40. Chakrabarti, D.K. and N. Lahari 1987. A Preliminary Report of the Stone Age of the Union Territory of Delhi and Haryana, Man and Environment 11: 109-116. Chakrabarti, S. 1983. Acheulian Culture in Saurashtra in Relation to Pleistocene Stratigraphy: an Overview, Journal of the lndian Anthropological Society l8(l): Chawla S., A.K. Singhvi, S.N. Rajaguru, V.N. Misra, and R.P. Dhir 1990. Significance of TL Dating of Fossil Dunes in the Study of Stone Age Chronology and Environment in the Thar Desert. Paper Presented at the International Seminar on Rising Trends in Palaeoanthropology, Environmental Change and Response: (the Last Two Million Years) 19-23rd December 1990. Deccan College. Clark, J.D. and M.A.J. Williams 1986. Palaeoenvironments and Prehistory of North Central India: a Preliminary Report, in Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan (J.Jacobson Ed.), pp 19-42. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. Clark, J.D. and M.A.J. Williams 1990. Prehistoric Ecology, Resource Strategies and Culture Change in the Son Valley, Northern Madhya Pradesh, Central India, Man and Environment: 15(1): 13-24. Cockburn, J. 1888. On Palaeolithic Implements from Drift Gravels of the Singrauli Basin, Southern Mirzapur, Journal of the Anthropological Institute 17: 57-65. Corvinus, G. 1967. An Acheulian Occupation Floor at Chirki-on-Pravara, India, Current Anthropology 9: 216-218. Corvinus, G. 1968-69. Stratigraphy and Geological Background of the Acheulian Site Chirki-on-Pravara, India, Anthropos 63/64: 92 1-940. 65

Man and Environment XIX (1-2)- 1994

Corvinus, G. 1970. The Acheulian Workshop at Chirki on the Pravara River, Indian Antiquary 4: 13-22. Corvinus, C.A. 1975. Excavations at the Acheulian Site of Chirki, in South Asian Archaeology (N. Hamond Ed.), pp. 13-28. New Jersey: Noyes Press. Corvinus, G. 198 1. The Pravara River System Vol. I: the Stratigraphy and Geomorphology of the Pravara River System. Tubingen: Archaeologica Ventoria Institute fur Ugeschichte. Corvinus, G. 1983. The Pravara River System Vol2: the Excavations of the Acheulian Site of Chirki-onPravara, India. Tubingen: Archaeologica Venatoria Institute fiir Urgeschichte. Corvinus, G. 1990. A Note on the Discovery of Handaxes in Nepal, Man and Environment 15(2): 9- 11. Corvinus, G. 1994. The Prehistory of Nepal After 10 Years of Research. Paper Presented at the 15th IPPA Congress, Chiang Mai, Thailand. January 1994. Datta, A. 1991. Cultural Migration in West Bengal (Prehistoric Period), in Studies in Archaeology (Papers Presented in Memory of P.C. Dasgupta) (A.Datta Ed.), pp. 173-202. New Delhi: Books and Books. Davies, R.S. 1986. The Soan in Central Asia? Problems in Lower Palaeolithic Cultural History, in Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan (J. Jacobson Ed.), pp. 1-18. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. De Terra, H. and T.T. Paterson 1939. Studies on the Ice Age in India and Associated Human Cultures. Washington D.C.: Carnegie Institute. Dennell, R.W. 1984. The Importance of the Potwar Plateau, Pakistan to Studies of Early Man, in South Asian Archaeology 1981 (B. Allchin Ed.), pp. 10-19. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Dennell, R.W. 1989. Report of the British Archaeological Mission to Pakistan 1980-89, Man and Environment: 14(1): 129-132. Dennell, R.W. and H.M. Rendell 1991. De Terra and Paterson and the Soan Flake Industry: a New Perspective from the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan, Man and Environment: 14(2) 91-100. Dennell, R.W., H.M. Rendell, and E. Hailwood 1988a. Late Pliocene Artefacts from Northern Pakistan, Current Anthropology 29: 495-498. Dennell, R.W., H.M. Rendell, and E. Hailwood. 1988b. Early Tool-Making in Asia: Two-Million-Year-Old Artefacts in Pakistan, Antiquity 62: 98- 106. Foote, R.B. 1866. On the Occurrence of Stone Implements in the Lateritic Formations in Various Parts of Madras and North Arcot District. Reprinted 1966 in Studies in Prehistory (D. Sen and A.K. Ghosh 66

Eds.), pp. 1-22. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhdyay. Foote, R.B. 1916. The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities. Notes on Their Ages and Distribution. Madras: Government Museum. Gaillard, C., D.R. Raju, V.N. Misra and S.N. Rajaguru 1983. Acheulian Occupation at Singi Talav in the Thar Desert: a Preliminary Report on 1982 Excavation, Man and Environment 7: 112-130. Gaillard, C., V.N. Misra and S.N. Rajaguru 1985. Acheulian Occupation at Singi Talav in the Thar Desert: a Preliminary Report on the 198 1 Excavation, Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 44: 141-152. Gaillard, C., D.R. Raju, V.N. Misra and S.N. Rajaguru 1986. Handaxe Assemblages from the Didwana Region, Thar Desert, India: a MetricaYikalysis, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 52: 189214. Gaillard, C. 1994. Processing Sequences in Indian Lower Palaeolithic: Examples from Acheulian and Soanian. Paper Presented at the 15th IPPA Congress, Chiang Mai, Thailand January 5-12, 1994. Ghosh, A.K. 1970. The Palaeolithic Cultures of Singhbhum, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 60(1): 1-68. Goudeller, L.D. and Ravi Korisettar 1993. The First Discovery of Acheulian Bifaces in Goa: Implications for the Archaeology of the West Coast of India, Man and Environment 18(1) 35-42. Grazoisi, P. 1964. Prehistoric Research in Northwestern Punjab. (Italian Expedition to the Karakorum (K2) and Hindu Kush) Scientific Reports, 5. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Guzder, S.J. 1980. Quaternary Environment and Stone Age Cultures of the Konkan, Coastal Maharashtra. Pune: Deccan College. Jacobson, J. 1979. Recent Developments in South Asian Prehistory and Protohistory, Annual Reviews of Anthropology 8: 467-502. Jacobson, J. 1985. Acheulian Surface Sites in Central India, in Indo-Pacific Prehistory (V.N. Misra and P. Bellwood Eds.), pp. 49-57. Delhi. Oxford and IBH. Jayaswal, V. 1978. Palaeohistory of India: a Study of Prepared Core Technique. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakasan. Jayaswal, V. 1982. Chopper Chopping Tool Component of the Palaeolithic in India. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakasan.

South Asian Lower Palaeolithic

Johnson, E.O. 1973. Notes on a Palaeolithic Site Survey in Pakistan, Asian Perspectives 15: 60-65; 38: 28-56. Joshi, R.V. 1955. Pleistocene Studies in the Malaprabha Basin. Pune: Deccan College. Joshi, R.V. 1961. Stone Age Industries from the Damoh Area, M.P, Ancient India 17: 5-37. Joshi, R.V. 1975. Stone Age Cultures of Central India: Report of the Excavations of the Rock Shelter at Adamgarh, M.P. Pune: Deccan College. Joshi, R.V. and B.P. Bopardikar 1972. Stone Age Cultures of the Konkan, in Archaeological Congress and Seminar Papers (S.B. Deo Ed.). Nagpur: University of Nagpur. Joshi, R.V., B.P. Bopardikar and S.A. Sali 1966. Animal Fossils and Early Stone Age Tools from Gangapur on the Godavari River, Current Science 35: 344. loshi, R.V., S.N. Rajaguru, G.L.Badam and P.C. Khanna 1975. Early and Middle Palaeolithic Tools from River Terraces in the Saketi Area, Markand Valley, Himachal Pradesh, Current Science 44(13): 464465.

from Sihawal 11, in Palaeoenvironments and Prehistory in the Middle Son Valley. (G.R. Sharma and J.D. Clark Eds.), pp. 23-38. Allahabad: Abinash Prakashan. Khatri, A.P. 1962. Mahadevian: an Oldowan Pebble Culture of India, Asian Perspectives 6(1-2): 186-197. Korisettar, R., S. Mishra, S.N. Rajaguru, V.D. Gogte, R.K. Ganjoo, T.R. Venkatesan, S.K. Tandon, B.L.K. Somayajulu, and V.S. Kale 1988a. Discovery of a Tephra Bed in the Quaternary Alluvial Sediments of Peninsular India, Current Science 58: 564-67. Korisettar, R., S. Mishra, S.N. Rajaguru, V.D. Gogte, R.K. Ganjoo, T.R. Venkatesan, S.K. Tandon, B.L.K. Somayajulu and V.S. Kale 1988-1989b. Age of the Bori Volcanic Ash and Lower Palaeolithic Culture of the Kukdi Valley, Maharashtra, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 47-48: 135-138. Krantz, G. 1972. Soan Tool Types from Ghila Kalan, Asian Perspectives 15: 66-82. Krishnaswami, V.D. 1938. Changes of Prehistoric Man Near Madras, Journal of Madras Geographical Association 13: 58-90.

Joshi, R.V., S.N. Rajaguru, G.L. Badam and P.C. Khanna 1978. Environments and Culture of Early Man in Northwest India: a Reappraisal, Journal of the Geological Society of India 19(2)83-86.

Kshirsagar, A. 1994. The Role of Fluorine Dating in Indian Stone Age Cultures, Man and Environment 18(2): 23-32.

Joshi R.V., R. Subrahmanyam and V. Madhusudan Rao 1979. Late Acheulian Culture of the Paleru River Valley, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 38: 28-36.

Kshirsagar, A. and K. Paddayya 1988-89. Relative Chronology of Stone Age Cultures of Hungsi-Baichbal Valley, Northern Karnataka, by Fluorine Analysis, Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 47/48: 143-145.

Kajale, M.D., G.L.Badam and S.N. Rajaguru 1976. Late Quaternary History of the Ghod Valley, Maharashtra, Geophytology 6(1): 122-132.

Lal, B.B. 1956. Palaeoliths from the Beas and Banganga Valley, Punjab, Ancient India 12: 58-92.

Kale, V.S. 1990. Time-Scale of Landscape Development in the Deccan Plateau, Tropical Geomorphology Newsletter 10: 4-5. Kale, V.S., R.K. Ganjoo, S.N. Rajaguru and S.B. Ota 1986. Discovery of an Acheulian Site at Bori, District Pune, Bulletin of the Deccan College PostGraduate and Research Institute 45: 47-49. Kale, V.S., R.K. Ganjoo, S.N. Rajaguru and Salauddin 1986. A Link Channel Occupation Site of Acheulian Man, Upper Krishna Valley, Karnataka, Current Science 55: 1073-75. Kale, V.S., D.N. Patil, N.J. Powar and S.N. Rajaguru 1993. Discovery of a Volcanic Ash Bed in the Alluvial Sediments at Morgoan, Maharashtra, Man and Environment 18(2): 141-144. Keynoyer, J.M. and J.N. Pal 1983. Report on Excavation and Analysis of an Upper Acheulian Assemblage

Lele, V.S. 1989. Quaternary Formations in the Bhadar Valley, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 47-48: 165-206. Madusudhana Rao, V.V. 1983. Metrical Analysis of Acheulian Tools from the Paleru Valley, Coastal Andhra, in Rangavalli: Recent Research in Indology (S.R. Rao Felicitation) (A.V. Narasimha Murthy and Gururaja Rao Eds.), pp. 11-17. Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. Marathe, A.R. 1981. Geoarchaeology of the Hiran Valley, Saurashtra, India. Poona: Deccan College. Merrick, H.V. and J.P.S. Merrick 1976. Archaeological Occurrences of Earlier Pleistocene Age, from the Sungara Formation, in Earliest Man and Environments in the Lake RudolfBasin: Stratigraphy, Palaeoecology and Evolution (Y.Coppens, F.C. Howell, G.L. Isaac and R.E.F. Leakey Eds.), pp. 574-590. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Man and Environment XIX (1-2) - 1994

Mishra, S. 1982. On the Effects of Basalt Weathering on the Distribution of Lower Palaeolithic Sites in the Deccan, Bulletin of the Deccan College PostGraduate & Research Institute 41 : 107-115. Mishra, S. 1985. Early Man and Environments in Western Madhya Pradesh. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: University of Poona. Mishra, S. 1986. Archaeological Assemblages and Basalt Weathering: a Re-evaluation of the Nevasian, Man and Environment 10: 91-96. Mishra, S 1992. The Age of the Acheulian in India: New Evidence, Current Anthropology 33: 325-28. Mishra, S. (in press). Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies at Nevasa: the Last 40 Years, in Quaternay Environments and Geoarchaeology of India (S. Wadia, R. Korisettar and V.S. Kale Eds.). Bangalore: Geological Society of India. Mishra, S., Ksirsagar A. and S.N. Rajaguru 1988. Relative Dating of the Quaternary Record from Upland Western Maharashtra, in National Seminar on Recent Quaternary Studies in India (M.P. Pate1 and N. Desai Eds.), pp. 267-278. Baroda: M.S. University. Mishra, S. and S.N. Rajaguru 1993. Quaternary Deposits at Bhedaghat, near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, Man and Environment l8(2): 7- 12. Mishra S., S.N. Rajaguru, N. Sadakata and H. Maemoku 1994. Soils as Stratigraphic Markers in the Quaternary Deposits of Maharashtra. Paper Presented at the 11th Convention of the Indian Association of Sedimentologists, Roorkee, Oct. 2123 1994. Misra, V.N. 1961. Palaeolithic Industries of Banas, Eastern Rajaputana, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay 34/35: 138-160. Misra, V.N. 1962. Palaeolithic Cultures of Western Rajaputana, Bulletin of the Deccan College PostGraduate and Research Institute 2 1: 85- 156. Misra, V.N. 1978. The Acheulian Industry of Rockshelter IIF-23 at Bhimbetka, Central India: a Preliminary Study, Austrailian Archaeology 8: 13-36. Misra, V.N. 1987. Middle Pleistocene Adaptations in India. in The Pleistocene Old World: Regional Perspectives ( 0 . Soffer Ed.), pp. 99-1 19. New York: Plenum Press.

in the Archaeology of South Asia (J.M. Kenoyer Ed.), pp. 296-320. Madison: University of Wisconsin. Misra, V.N. and S.N. Rajaguru 1989. Palaeoenvironments and Prehistory of the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India, in South Asian Archaeology 1985 (K. Frifelt and R. Sorensen Eds.). Copenhagen: Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Occasional Papers no 4. Misra, V.N., S.N. Rajaguru, D.R. Raju, H.Raghvan, and C.Gaillard 1982. Acheulian Occupation and Evolving Landscape Around Didwana in the Thar Desert, India, Man and Environment 6: 72-86. Misra, V.N., S.N. Rajaguru, G.L. Badam, R.K. Ganjoo and R. Korisettar 1990. Further Research in the Prehistory and Quaternary Geology of the Narmada Valley, in Adaption and Other Essays. (Eds. N.C. Ghosh and S. Chakrabarti), pp. 53-60. Shantiniketan: Visva-Bharati Research Publications. Misra, V.N., S.N. Rajaguru, R.K. Ganjoo and R. Korrisettar 1989. Geoarchaeology of the Palaeolithic Site at Samnapur, Central Narmada Valley, Man and Environment 15(1): 107-116. Misra, V.D., R.S. Rana, J.D. Clark and R.J. Blumenshine 1983. Preliminary Excavation of Son River Section at Nakjhar Kurd, in Pa?aeoenvironments and Prehistory in the Middle Son Valley (G.R. Sharma. and J.D. Clark Eds.), pp. 101-1 15. Allahabad: Abinash Prakashan. Mohapatra, G.C. 1966. Preliminary Report of the Exploration and Excavation of the Stone Age Sites in Eastern Punjab, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 25: 22 1-237. Mohapatra, G.C. 1975. Acheulian Element in the Soan Culture Area, Journal of the Archaeological Society of Nippon 80(4): 4-1 8. Mohapatra, G.C. 1976. Geotectonic Developments, SubHimalayan Lithic Complex and Post-Siwalik Sediments, in Perspectives in Palaeoanthropology (A.K. Ghosh Ed.), pp. 3 1-59. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. Mohapatra, G.C. 1981. Acheulian Discoveries in the Siwalik Frontal Range, Current Anthropology 22(4): 433-435.

Misra, V.N. 1989a. Stone Age India: an Ecological Perspective, Man and Environment 14: 17-64.

Mohapatra, G.C. 1982. Acheulian Distribution in the Siwalik of Punjab, in Indian Archaeology: New Perspectives (R.K. Sharma Ed.), pp. 28-37. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakasan.

Misra, V.N. 1989b. Human Adaptation to Changing Landscape of the Indian Arid Zone During the Quaternary, in Old Problems and New Perspectives

Mohapatra, G.C. 1990. Soanian-Acheulian Relationship, Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 49: 25 1-260.

South Asian Lower Palaeolithic

Mohapatra, G.C. and M. Singh 1979. Stratified Occurrence of Lithic Artefacts in the Siwalik Frontal Range of Western Sub-Himalayas, Panjab University Research Bulletin lO(1-2): 65-77. Mohapatra, G.C. and M. Singh. 1981. Acheulian Discoveries in the Siwalik Frontal Range of Western SubHimalayas, Panjab University Research Bulletin lO(1-2): 65-77. Movius, H.L. Jr. 1948. Early Man and Pleistocene Stratigraphy in Southern and Eastern Asia. Peabody Museum Paper 19.

Paddayya, K. 1984. Stone Age India in Neue Forscheungen zur Altsteinseit ( H . Muller-Karpe Ed.) Munich: C.H. Beck Verlag. Paddayya, K. 1985. Acheulian Occupation Sites and Associated Fossil Fauna from Hunsgi-Baichbal Valleys, Peninsular India, Anthropos 80: 653-658. Paddayya, K. 1987a. Excavation of an Acheulian Occupation Site at Yediyapur, Peninsular India, Anthropos 82: 610-614.

Murty, M.L.K. 1966. Stone Age Cultures of Chittoor District. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: University of Poona.

Paddayya, K. 1987b. The Place of the Study of Site Formation Processes in the Prehistoric Research in India, in Natural Formation Processes and the Archaeological Record (D.T. Nash and M. Petraglia Eds.), pp. 74-85. Oxford: B.A.R. international Series.

Ota, S.B. 1992. Archaeological Investigations in the Submergence Area of the Narmada Sagar Dam, M.P.: a Reconnaissance Survey, Man and Environment 17(1): 97-103.

Paddayya, K. 1987c. The Stone Age Cultural Systems of the Baichbal Valley, Gulburga District, Karnataka: a Preliminary Report, Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 46: 77- 100.

Paddayya, K. 1971. High Level Gravel and Related Palaeolithic Sites of Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India, Quartar 22: 95-1 10. Paddayya, K. 1975. Investigations into the Acheulian Phase in Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India, Quartar 26: 511.

Paddayya, K. 1989. The Acheulian Culture Localities Along the Fatehpur Nullah, Baichbal Valley, Karnataka (Peninsular India), in Old problems and New Perspectives in the Archaeology of South Asia. (J.M. Kenoyer Ed.), pp 21 -28. Madison: University of Wisconsin.

Paddayya, K. 1976. Excavation of an Acheulian Site at Hungsi, South India, Current Anthropology 17: 760-76 1.

Paddayya, K. 1991. The Acheulian Culture of the HungsiBaichbal Valleys, Peninsular India: a Processual Study, Quartar 41/42: 111-138.

Paddayya, K. 1977a. The Acheulian Culture of the Hunsgi Valley (Shorapur Doab), Peninsular India, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 121: 383-406.

Paddayya K. and M.D. Petraglia 1993. Formation Processes of Acheulian Localities in the Hunsgi and Baichbal Valleys, Peninsular India, in Formation Processes in Archaeological Context (P. Goldberg, D.T. Nash and M.D. Petraglia Eds.), pp. 61-82. Monographs in World Archaeology no. 17. Madison: Prehistory Press.

Paddayya, K. 1977b. An Acheulian Occupation Site at Hungsi, Peninsular India: a Summary of Results of Two Seasons of Excavation (1975-6), World Archaeology 8: 344-355. Paddayya, K. 1978. New Research Designs and Field Techniques in Palaeolithic Archaeology, World Archaeology 10: 94- 110. Paddayya, K. 1979. Excavation of a New Acheulian Occupation Site at Hungsi, Peninsular India, Quartar 29/30: 139-155. Paddayya, K. 1982a. The Acheulian Culture of the Hunsgi Valley, Peninsular India: a Settlement System Perspective. Pune: Deccan College. Paddayya, K. 1982b. The Transition from Lower to Middle Palaeolithic in Hungsi Valley, Penninsular India, in Transitionfrom Lower to Middle Palaeolithic and the Origin of Modern Man (A. Ronen Ed.), pp. 257-264. Oxford: B.A.R. International Series 151.

Pandey, J.N. and N. Pal 1988. Acheulian Occupation at Maihar, Man and Environment 12: 20 1-202. Pant, P.C. 1982. Prehistoric Uttar Pradesh ( a Study of the Old Stone Age. New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Pant, P.C. and V. Jayaswal 1991. Paisra: Stone Age Settlement in Bihar. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. Pappu, R.S. 1974. Pleistocene Studies in the Upper Krishna Basin. Poona: Deccan College. Pappu, R.S. 1981. Recent Geoarchaeological Studies Around Badami, District Bijapur, Karnataka, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 40: 170-179. Pappu, R.S. 1985. Geomorphic Setting of Acheulian Sites in Peninsular India, in Recent Advances in IndoPacific Prehistory (V.N.Misra and P.Bellwood Eds.), pp. 9-12. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH.

;

Man and Environment XIX (1-2)- 1994

Pappu, R.S. 1990. Quaternary Environment and Palaeolithic Cultures of the Ghataprabha Basin, Karnataka, in Archaeology in Karnataka (A. Sundara Ed.), pp. 17-22. Mysore: Directorate of Archaeology and Museum. Pappu, R.S. (in press). Contribution of the Earth Sciences to the Development of Indian Archaeology, in Quaternary Environments and Geoarchaeology of India (S. Wadia, R. Korisettar and V.S. Kale Eds.). Bangalore: Geological Society of India. . Pappu, R.S. and S.G. Deo 1994. Man-Land Relationships During Palaeolithic Times in the Kaladgi Basin, Karnataka. Pune: Deccan College. Pande, B.M. 1985. A Late Acheulian Hand-axe from New Delhi, Man and Environment 9: 157-158. Petraglia, M.D. and D.T. Nash 1987. The Impact of Fluvial Processes on Experimental Sites. in Natural Formation Processes and the Archaeological Record. (D.T. Nash and M.D. Petraglia Eds.), pp. 108-130 Oxford: BAR International Series 352. Raghvan, H., S.N. Rajaguru and V.N. Misra 1989. Radiometric Dating of a Quaternary Dune Section, Man and Environment 13: 19-22. Rajaguru, S.N. 1969. On the Late Pleistocene of the Deccan, Quaternaria 11: 241-53. Rajaguru, S.N. 1970. Studies in the Late Pleistocene of the Mula-Mutha. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: University of Poona. Rajaguru, S.N. and G.L. Badam 1984. Litho and Biostratigrtaphy of Quaternary Formations, Central Godavari Valley, Maharashtra, I976 Proceedings of the Symposium on Deccan Trap and Bauxite, Publications of the Geological Survey of lndia 14: 89-96. Rajaguru, S.N., R.K. Ganjoo and V.N. Misra 1994. A Fresh Look at the Quaternary Lithostratigraphy of a Part of the Central Narmada Valley, Narsinghpur District, M.P., in India: Geomorphological Diversity. (K.R. Dikshit, V.S. Kale and M.N. Kaul Eds.), pp. 435-452. New Delhi and Jaipur: Rawat Publishers. Rajaguru, S.N. and K.T.M Hegde 1973. Pleistocene Stratigraphy in India, in Archaeological Congress and Seminar Papers (S.B. Deo Ed.), pp. 69-79. Nagpur: University of Nagpur.

Stone Age Chronology at Chirki-Nevasa. Dist. Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute 3 1: 360-369. Rajendran, P. 1989. The Prehistoric Cultures and Environment of Kerala. New Delhi: Classical Publishing Company. Raju, D.R. 1988. Stone Age Hunter-Gatherers: an EthnoArchaeology of Cuddapah Region, South-East India. Pune: Ravish Publishers. Raju, D.R. 1989. The Lower Palaeolithic Culture in the Gunjana Valley on the Southeast Coast of India, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 47/48: 283-300 Rami Reddy, V. and S. Bhaskar 1983. Maralipalem and Chintalapalem: Two Late Acheulian Sites in Southeast Andhra Pradesh, in Rangavalli: Recent Research in Indology (A.V. Narasimha Murthy and Gururaja Rao Eds.), pp. 19-43. Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. Rao, S.N. 1966 Stone Age Cultures of Nalgonda District. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: University of Poona. Rendell, H.M. and R.W. Dennell. 1985. Dated Lower Palaeolithic Artefacts from Northern Pakistan, Current Anthropology 26: 293. Rendell, H.M., R.W. Dennell and M.A. Halim 1989. Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan. Oxford: B.A.R. International Series 544. Salahuddin 1989. Late Quaternary Ecology, Fauna and Human Cultures of Central Narmada Valley, Madhya Pradesh. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: University of Poona. Sali, S.A. 1970. Some Geomorphological and Tectonic Observations in the Central Tapi Basin, Dhulia District, Indian Antiquary 4: 206-213. Sali, S.A. 1973. Some Aspects of the Quaternary Stratigraphy of Peninsular India, Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 3 11 32: 70-80. Sali, S.A. 1974-5. Quaternary Stratigraphy in the Kan Basin at Badne and Yesar, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay 39/40: 157-167. Sali, S.A. 1990a. Stone Age India. Aurangabad: Shankar Publishers.

Rajaguru, S.N. and V.S. Kale 1985. Changes in Fluvial Regime of Western Maharashtra Upland Rivers During the Late Quaternary, Journal of the Geological Society of lndia 26: 16-27.

Sali, S.A. 1990b. Quaternary Environment and Culture Change in the Central Tapi Basin, Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 49: 375-404.

Rajaguru, S.N. and R.S. Pappu 1970-71. On the Problem of

Salim, M. 1978. Palaeolithic Survey in the Soan Valley of

South Asian Lower Palaeolithic

Northern Pakistan: a Brief Report, Man and Environnierrt 2: 77-8 1. Sankalia, H.D. 1946. Investigntions into the Prehistoric Arclzrreology of Cujarat. Baroda: Baroda State Press. Sankalia, H.D. 1952. The Codavnri Palaeolithic Industry. Poona: Dcccan College Sankalia, H.D. 1956. Animal Fossils and Palaeolithic Industries from the Pravara Basin at Ncvasa, Dist. Ahmednagar, Ancient India 12: 35-53. Sankalia, H.D. 1974. Prehistory and Protohistory of lndia and Pakistan. Pune: Deccan College.

toric Archaeology of the Central Narmada. Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: University of Poona. Supekar, S.G. 1985. Some Observations on the Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Central Narniada Valley, in Recent Advances in Indo-Pacific Prehistory (V.N. Misra and P. Bellwood Eds.), pp. 19-28. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH. Szabo, B.J., C. McKinney, T.S. Dalbey and K. Paddayya 1990. On the Age of the Acheulian Culture of the Hunsgi-Baichbal Valleys, Peninsular India, Bulletin of the Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute 50: 3 17-321.

Sen, D. 1955. Nalagarh Palaeolithic Culture, Man in India 35: 177-184.

Theobold, W. 1880. On the Discovery of a Celt of Palaeolithic Type in the Punjab, India, Records of the Geological Survey of lndia 13: 176.

Sen. D. and A.K. Ghosh 1960. On the Occurrence of Palaeoliths in Singhbum, Man in India 40(3): 178191.

Varaprasad Rao, J. 1992. Prehistoric Environments and Archaeology from the Krishna Tungahhadra Doab. Ph.D. Dissertation. Punc: University of Poona.

Sharrna. G.R. and J.D. Clark (Eds.) 1983. Pnlr~eoer~~~irnnnler~ts and Prehistory in tlze Middle Son Valley (Madhya Pradesh, North Central Inrlia.). Allahabad: Abinash Prakashan.

Wainwright. G.J. and K.T.M. Hegdc 1964. The Pleistocene Deposits of the Lower Narniada River and an Early Storl~Agr Industr~lfr-om the River Clzambal. Baroda: M.S. University.

Sharma, A.K. 1993. Prehistoric I k l h i and Its Nriglrhor,rlrood. New Delhi: Aryan Books Intcrnational.

Wasson, R.J., S.N. Rajaguru, V.N. Misra, D.P. Agrawal, R.P. Dhir, A.K. Singhvi and K.K. Rao 1983. Gcomorphology, Latc Quaternary Stratigraphy and Palacociimatology of the Thar Dunefield, Zeitschriftfiir Geonmrphologie (Srlpplenlent) 45: 1 17125.

Sharma. G.R. 1973. Stone Age in the Vindhyas and Canga Vallcy, i n K(ldiocn~-borrrrtrcl Ir~cliclriArchr~eology (D.P. Agrawal and A. Ghosh Eds.), pp. 106- 1 10. Bombay: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. Singh. R. 1956. 7'11~ Pnlrreolitl~icIndu.stry of Northern Pt1.D. Dissertation. Pune: University U~rrrtlclkl~nntl. o f Poona. Sinha. P. 199 I . Morielfor Lmtl- Use in the Late Acheulian 7'r(rdirion (Sntnn District, M.P.). Allahabad: Prayag Pustali Sadan.

Sonakia. A. 1984. The Skull-cap of Early Man and Associatcd Mammalian Fauna from the Narniada Vallcy Alluvium. Hostiangabad Area, Madhya Pradesh, India, Kecor-ds o f Geological Survey of India, I l3(6): 157- 172. Soundara Rrl-jan. K.V. 1952. Stone Age Industries in Giddalur, District Kurnool, Ancient lrzdirl 8: 64-92. Straus. L.G. 1983. Review o S T k Aclieuli~iaCulture of' H L L ~ \/CIll~j R S ~ by K. Paddayya, Journ~dofAnthropolo~iccllKesecrrch 39: 447-449. S~lt7r~lhmany:1rn, B.R. and E.J. Sirecsha 1988-89. Fossil Reaches and Palaeolithic Investigations in Coastal Andhra Prndcsh, Jorlrrrnl ~ f t l r eM.S. University qf Rtiroilri 37/38(1 ): 77-86. Supckar. S.G. 1958. Plcistocenc Stratigraphy and Prehis-

Wasson, R.J., (3.1. Srnith and D.P. Agrawal 1984. Late Quaternary Sediments, Minerals and InSerred Geochemical Hlstory of Didwana Lake, Thar Desert, India, Pnlaeogeogrplzy, Pnlneoclirnate, Pnlaeoecology 46: 345-372. Williams, M.A.J. and M.F. Clarke 1984. Latc Quaternary Environments in North Central India, Nature 308: 633-644. Williams, M.A.J. and K. Roycc 1982. Quaternary Geology of the Middle Son Valley, North Central India: Implications for Prehistoric Archaeology, Pcrlaeogeogrc~p/ij~, Pnlrzc~oclirnntology,Palaeoecology 38: 1 34- 162. Williams, M.A.J. and K. Royce 1983. Alluvial History of thc Middle Son Vallcy, North Central India, in I-'alneoenvironnrer~t.sarid Prehistorj' in the Middle Son V d e y (G.R. Sharrna and J.D. Clark Eds.), pp. 9-2 1. Allahabad: Abinash Prakashan. Zeuner, F.E. 1950. Stone Age and Pleistocene Chronologj in Cujarat. Pune: Deccan College. Zcuner, F.E. 1963. Environnzerit and Earl-y Man with Special Reference to Tropical Regions. Baroda: M.S. University.