KURDISTAN REGIONAL GOVERNMENT-IRAQ MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI FACULTY OF HUMANITIES SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
The Notion of Construal in Interpreting Pairs of Spatial Prepositions: A Cognitive Semantics Study A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE COUNCIL OF SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI, ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
BY LANA RIZGAR KAMAL
SUPERVISED BY ASST. PROF. DR. ZEKI SABIR HAMAWAND
2016 A.D.
2716 KURDISH
هلل الرمح ِن الرِحيِم ِبسمِ ا ِ م حاَنكَلَا عِلِمَلَنَاإِلَّامَا عَلَّمَِتنَا ۖإَِّنكَأَنتَالِعَلِي ُ سبِ َ قَالُوا ُ الِحَكِيمُ ( البقرة )23
II
Supervisor’s Certification I certify that this thesis entitled “The Notion of Construal in Interpreting Pairs of Spatial Prepositions: A Cognitive Semantics Study” by (Lana Rizgar Kamal) was prepared under my supervision in the School of languages, at the University of Sulaimani, as partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in English Language and Linguistics.
Signature: Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Zeki S. Hamawand Date:
/
/ 2016
In the view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for debate by the Examining Committee
Signature: Name: Dr. Azad H. Fatah Head of English Department Date:
/
/ 2016
Examination Committee’s Certification III
We, the examination committee, certify that we have read this thesis entitled “The Notion of Construal in Interpreting Pairs of Spatial Prepositions: A Cognitive Semantics Study”, and we have examined the student (Lana Rizgar Kamal) in its contents and that in our opinion it meets the basic requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English Language and Linguistics.
Signature:
Signature:
Name: Prof. Dr. Waria O. Amin
Name: Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid H. Ali
Date:
Date:
/
/ 2016
Chairman
/
/ 2016
Member
Signature:
Signature:
Name: Dr. Azad H. Fatah
Name: Asst. Prof. Dr. Zeki S. Hamawand
Date:
Date:
/
/ 2016
Member
/
/ 2016
Member and Supervisor
Approved by the Council of the School of Languages.
Signature: Name: Asst. Prof. Dr. Abdulqadir H. Mohammed Dean of the School of Languages
IV
Dedication
To My beloved parents & My better half
V
Acknowledgement First and foremost, I owe every debt to Almighty Allah for blessing me with His Grace and giving me health, courage and patience to pursue my goals. I would like to express my gratitude to the Kurdistan Regional Government, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, the Presidency of Sulaimani University, School of Languages and the Department of English, for giving me the opportunity to pursue my postgraduate study in linguistics. I would like to direct my words of appreciation specifically towards my supervisor Assist. Prof. Dr. Zeki Hamawand for his endless help, efficient guidance, continuous advice, fruitful comments and acute observations while working on this thesis. In addition, my utmost gratitude goes to Dr. Azad Hasan Fatah, Head of the English Department for his support, encouragement and advice. I extend my thanks to my instructors during the two courses of my MA study. Special thanks go to my colleagues for their support throughout the whole process. Finally, I owe the greatest credit and respect to my beloved family and friends for their endless support and everlasting love.
VI
List of Figures Figure 1
The semantic network of the preposition above…...………
19
Figure 2
The semantic network of the preposition across…………..
20
Figure 3
The semantic network of the preposition against………….
22
Figure 4
The semantic network of the preposition at.................……... 24
Figure 5
The semantic network of the preposition before….………… 25
Figure 6
The semantic network of the preposition behind.………….
27
Figure 7
The semantic network of the preposition below…..……….
28
Figure 8
The semantic network of the preposition beyond………….
29
Figure 9
The semantic network of the preposition by……………….
32
Figure 10 The semantic network of the preposition in……………….
35
Figure 11 The semantic network of the preposition in front of……….
36
Figure 12 The semantic network of the preposition into……………..
38
Figure 13 The semantic network of the preposition near…………….
39
Figure 14 The semantic network of the preposition on……………….
43
Figure 15 The semantic network of the preposition onto…………….
45
Figure 16 The semantic network of the preposition over…………….
48
Figure 17 The semantic network of the preposition past……………..
49
Figure 18 The semantic network of the preposition through…………
51
Figure 19 The semantic network of the preposition to……………….
55
Figure 20 The semantic network of the preposition under…………...
57
Figure 21 The semantic network of the preposition underneath……..
58
Figure 22 The domains of spatial prepositions……………………….
104
VII
List of Tables Table 1 The Multiple senses of spatial prepositions……………….....
95
Table 2 The Semantic distinctions of spatial prepositions………........ 105
VIII
Abstract This study deals with the construal of pairs of spatial prepositions in English, the process by which the speaker conceptualizes a situation in different ways and uses appropriate spatial prepositions to represent them in discourse. It adopts Cognitive Semantics in the analysis. The study hypothesizes that each spatial preposition has a specific meaning in language, which is different from the others. The aim, therefore, is to tackle the problem of the random use of spatial prepositions made by learners of English, by highlighting semantic distinctions that set them apart. In doing so, it applies the three cognitive models of meaning to their analysis: categorization, configuration, and conceptualization. The study has reached three specific results. First, a spatial preposition has multiple senses. Second, spatial prepositions can be placed in general areas of knowledge representing different aspects of experience. Third, when two or more spatial prepositions occur in the same position, they represent distinct dimensions of construal.
IX
Contents Subjects
Pages
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………
VI
List of Figures …………………………………..............................................
VII
List of Tables…………………………………................................................
VIII
Abstract……………………………………………………………………….
IX
Contents…………………………………........................................................
X
Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Outline………………………………………………………………
1
1.1.1 The problem.……...…………................................................
1
1.1.2 The scope………………………............................................
2
1.1.3 The hypotheses………………………....................................
2
1.1.4 The objectives………………………….................................
2
1.1.5 The procedures…………………………................................
3
1.2 Review of literature………………………….…………...................
3
Chapter Two: Theoretical Framework 2.1 Introduction…………………….……...............................................
5
2.2 Cognitive Linguistics…………………………………......................
5
2.2.1 Symbolism…………………………………..........................
6
2.2.2 Usage based..…………………………...................................
6
2.2.3 Creativity………….………………........................................
7
2.2.4 Non modularity…………………………...............................
8
2.2.5 Semanticity …………………………….................................
8
2.3 Cognitive Semantics………………………………….......................
9
2.3.1 Categorization………………………….................................
10
2.3.2 Configuration…………………………..................................
11
X
2.3.3 Conceptualization……………………….…...........................
12
Chapter Three: Categorization of spatial prepositions 3.1 Introduction …………………………………...................................
14
3.2 Theories of Categorization………………………………….............
14
3.2.1 The Classical Theory…………………………......................
15
3.2.2 The Prototype Theory………………………….....................
16
3.3 Categorization of spatial prepositions………………………………
17
3.3.1 Above…………………………..............................................
17
3.3.2 Across………………………….............................................
19
3.3.3 Against…………………………............................................
20
3.3.4 At………….………………....................................................
22
3.3.5 Before………….……………….............................................
24
3.3.6 Behind………………………..............................................
25
3.3.7 Below....………………………..............................................
27
3.3.8 Beyond…………………………............................................
28
3.3.9 By…………………………....................................................
30
3.3.10
In…………………………...................................................
32
3.3.11
In front of…………..……………........................................
36
3.3.12
Into………………………....................................................
36
3.3.13
Near……………….………….............................................
38
3.3.14
On…………………..……...................................................
39
3.3.15
Onto……………………………..........................................
44
3.3.16
Over……………………………..........................................
45
3.3.17
Past……………………………...........................................
49
3.3.18
Through…………………………………............................
50
3.3.19
To…………………..……………........................................
51
XI
3.3.20
Under………………..………..............................................
56
3.3.21
Underneath….……………………......................................
58
Chapter Four: Configuration of spatial prepositions 4.1 Introduction…………………………………....................................
59
4.2 Theories of lexical relationships………………………………….....
59
4.2.1 The Semantic Field theory…………………………..............
59
4.2.2 The Cognitive Domain theory…………………….……........
61
4.3 Domains of spatial prepositions……………………………….........
62
4.3.1 The domain of Axis……………………………………........
62
4.3.1.1 The sub-domain of vertical axis…...….....................
63
4.3.1.1.1 The facet of height: above, over............................
63
4.3.1.1.2 The facet of lowness: under, underneath, below..
64
4.3.1.2 The sub-domain of horizontal axis...........................
65
4.3.1.2.1 The facet of motion: past, through, across….......
66
4.3.1.2.2 The facet of stability: against................................
67
4.3.2 The domain of Orientation…………………………..............
68
4.3.2.1 The facet of destination/goal: to, into………...........
68
4.3.2.2 The facet of position: before, behind, below, in
69
front of 4.3.3 The domain of Location………………………......................
71
4.3.3.1 The facet of containment: in…………….................
71
4.3.3.2 The facet of surface: on, onto……………...............
72
4.3.3.3 The facet of proximity: by, near……………...........
73
4.3.3.4 The facet of point: at…………….............................
74
XII
Chapter Five: Conceptualization of spatial prepositions 5.1 Introduction……………....................................................................
76
5.2 Theories of Interpretation……………...............................................
76
5.2.1 The Reference Theory…………….........................................
76
5.2.2 The Construal Theory…………….........................................
77
5.3 Semantic distinctions within domains………………………...….....
79
5.3.1 Semantic distinctions within the domain of Axis…………...
79
5.3.1.1 Direct vs. covered: under vs. underneath……..…...
80
5.3.1.2 Direct vs. indirect: under vs. below………………..
81
5.3.1.3 Non-contact vs. contact: above vs. over……...…....
82
5.3.1.4 On vs. in: across vs. through…………………..…..
83
5.3.2 Semantic distinctions within the domain of Orientation.……
83
5.3.2.1 Sequence vs. closeness: before vs. in front of……...
84
5.3.2.2 At the back of vs. further away: behind vs. beyond..
84
5.3.3 Semantic distinctions within the domain of Location…….....
85
5.3.3.1 Containment vs. point: in vs. at……………..……..
85
5.3.3.2 Containment vs. location: in vs. on…………….......
86
5.3.3.3 Location (physical) vs. movement: on vs. onto……
87
5.3.3.4 A short vs. a close distance away: near vs. by……...
88
5.4 Semantic distinctions between domains………………………….....
89
5.4.1 Location and Axis…………………………………………...
89
5.4.1.1 Point vs. touching: at vs. against………………......
89
5.4.1.2 A close distance away vs. further than: by vs. past..
90
5.4.2 Location and Orientation……………………………..…......
91
5.4.2.1 Containment vs. movement: in vs. into……………
91
5.4.2.2 Direction/destination vs. point: to vs. at…...............
92
XIII
5.4.3 Orientation and Axis………………………………….……..
93
5.4.3.1 Movement vs. facing: into vs. against…………......
93
Chapter Six: Summary and Conclusion……….……………………………..
95
References…………………………………………...……….…………………
107
Abstract in Arabic……………………...………………………………….......
114
Abstract in Kurdish………………...……………………………………..…
115
XIV
1
Chapter One Introduction 1.1 Outline 1.1.1 The problem Spatial prepositions such as at, by, in, near, on, under, underneath, etc. are words or groups of words that are used with nouns to show space. Spatial prepositions indicate spatial relations between two arguments X (the trajector) and Y (the landmark) i.e. how they are related to each other in space. They describe the place/location of X (the trajector) by using Y (the landmark) as reference. Spatial prepositions serve to locate the trajector with respect to the landmark or rather the place of the landmark (Cuyckens, 1993:27). Spatial prepositions are significant because they serve to express many communicative purposes. Yet learners of English misuse spatial prepositions in discourse due to their ignorance of their semantic structures. A look at language dictionaries such as Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2008), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2009), and grammar books such as, Stageberg (1981), Quirk et al. (1985), Biber, et al (2002), Huddleston and Pullam (2002), Murphy (2002) and Swan (2005) helps to identify the problem. First, the sources illustrate many aspects of prepositions, but they seldom show that pairs of spatial prepositions which seem similar can convey different meanings. Second, the sources present a listing of various types of spatial prepositions, but they fail to demonstrate that the semantic contrasts between these pairs of spatial prepositions result from the imposition of alternative construals on their content; each spatial preposition indicates a different construal. Third, the sources do not provide usage notes on the differences between prepositional pairs. In sum, the types of information that dictionaries and grammar books provide are not entirely sufficient to the needs of language users.
2
1.1.2 The scope The present study deals with spatial prepositions in English in general and the contrast between them in particular. Prepositions that indicate time are excluded from the analysis. The study builds on the three tenets of Cognitive Semantics in the analysis of the spatial pairs, which includes categorization, configuration, and conceptualization.
1.1.3
The hypotheses
Having identified the problem and delimited its scope, the study makes the following hypotheses: 1. A spatial preposition is polysemous. It forms a category of distinct but related senses gathering around a central sense, which is the most prominent one. The remaining senses which are linked to the central sense display some, not all, of its properties. 2. Spatial prepositions can be placed in domains denoting general concepts, within which they represent different facets. 3. Two or more pairs of spatial prepositions, which tend to occur in the same position, represent distinct construals.
1.1.4
The objectives
The study sets out to achieve the following objectives: 1. Presenting a detailed description of each spatial preposition, by identifying the senses, together with their definitions. 2. Putting the spatial prepositions into groups that share the same concepts, and identifying the specific facets, each of which stands for in the shared concept.
3
3. Accounting for the pairs of spatial prepositions, which represent different construals, and showing the semantic distinctions that set them apart. The value of the study resides in the fact that it provides information that cannot be found in grammar books or dictionaries. It enables learners of English to expand their knowledge of the exact uses of spatial prepositions, and express themselves in more precise ways.
1.1.5
The procedures
The approach used in the present study is Cognitive Linguistics in general and Cognitive Semantics in particular. To achieve the objectives, the study takes the following steps: 1. Presenting a categorial description of spatial prepositions, and discovering their central and marginal senses. 2. Placing the spatial prepositions into domains in which each preposition represents a different facet. 3. Proposing different semantic distinctions which set apart pairs of spatial prepositions occurring in the same position. This research relies on data collected from different sources including reference books such as Langacker (1987), Lee (2001), Tyler and Evans (2003), Swan (2005), Lindstromberg (2010), Hamawand (2016) and dictionaries of language such as Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2008), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2009) and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary(2010).
1.2 Review of literature An intriguing feature of English is that many prepositions are used to describe both spatial and temporal relationships. Hence, the study of
4
prepositions has been a popular topic in the history of English language. However, the majority of previous studies have focused on prepositions in general or on certain types of prepositions. For instance, Hofmann (1993) showed the semantic elements that lie behind prepositions. He used a system of elements, decomposing words into their semantic elements. Lindstromberg (2010) explains nearly all prepositions in English and provides information that dictionaries and grammar books ignore but on individual basis. Tyler and Evans (2003) shed light on the semantics of English prepositions and provide a comprehensive theoretical analysis of individual prepositions, by using a cognitive linguistics perspective. As can be seen, these works present detailed descriptions of prepositions in English. However, these works suffer from a number of drawbacks. One is that they present only a brief account of spatial prepositions. They fall short of providing the differences between two or more spatial prepositions, particularly when they occur in the same environment. They lack detailed semantic description of the behavior of spatial prepositions. In fact, these studies deal with the topic from traditional, structural, and generative perspectives, and they deal only with parts of the topic leaving the part on prepositional pairs of space uncovered. Even the works which deal with the topic from a cognitive perspective do not illustrate the different meanings the spatial prepositions express as they occur in the same context. By contrast, the present analysis is an attempt to investigate the topic using Cognitive Semantics model which gives meaning priority. The present analysis begins to address the gaps that have been left so far in the literature by focusing on the different meanings expressed by pairs of spatial prepositions. It provides a unified account of such prepositions by applying some fundamental tenets of Cognitive Semantics to their description.
5
Chapter Two Theoretical Framework 2.1 Introduction To tackle the topic of spatial prepositions, the study embeds their description in the frame of Cognitive linguistics in general and Cognitive Semantics in particular.
2.2 Cognitive Linguistics Cognitive linguistics as explained by Cruse (2006:26), Croft and Cruse (2004:1), Taylor (2002:3) and Richards and Schmidt (2010: 93) is a broad movement within modern linguistics. It includes a variety of approaches which describe phenomena in terms of mental constructs in the mind of speakers. Cognitive Linguistics began to emerge in the 1970s from its dissatisfaction with Generative Linguistics. As Janda (2000:3) states, Cognitive Linguistics is not seen as a single person enterprise but arises as a combination of various pioneering ideas acting as a separable strand of one whole. Langacker (1998:1) wrote, the movement called Cognitive Linguistics belongs to the functionalist tradition.This meant that language was no longer seen as an autonomous system but formed an integral facet of human cognition, and this is opposed to the generative hypothesis that language is autonomous (innate) cognitive faculty, separated from non-linguistic cognitive ability. According to Hamawand (2007:27), Cognitive Linguistics aims to focus on meaning, the role of cognition and the embodiment of experience and seek to illustrate how human mind understands the world and encodes that understanding in language.
6
Cognitive linguistics is built upon the notion that language reflects the basic properties and cognitive abilities of the human mind. As Taylor states, Cognitive Linguistics aims for a cognitively adequate account of what it means to know a language, how it is acquired, and how it is used. Also, that Cognitive Linguistics considers language as an integral facet of human cognition which reflects the interaction of social, cultural, psychological, communicative and functional considerations. A language is something that people have to know; it has to be acquired in early childhood then resided in the mind of its speaker later invoked in an act of language use (2002:4-9).
2.2.1 Symbolism In Cognitive Linguistics, language is viewed as being symbolic in nature. Hamawand defines symbolicity (2011:17) as the quality of linguistic units being associated with meaning. A linguistic unit consists of a semantic structure, its meaning, and a phonological structure, its form. They are linked by a symbolic structure. The linkage between the two structures is not arbitrary. Rather, it is motivated by the manner in which the speaker interacts with the world. Langacker (1987:11) also proposes that language is “… an open-ended set of linguistic signs or expressions, each of which associates a semantic representation of some kind with a phonological representation”. Thus, language is symbolic in nature as it is inherently based on the relationship between the semantic and the phonological representation. Applied to the present topic, the preposition under, for example, is regarded as an association between the phonological structure /'ʌndə/ and the semantic structure [under].
2.2.2 Usage based According to Cognitive Linguistics, linguistic units are usage based as they are based on usage events which are actual instances of language use. In the words of Tomasello (2003: 5), “language structure emerges from language use.” This principle holds that there is no distinction between knowledge of language
7
and language use because knowledge emerges from use (Evans; 2011:79). Hence, knowledge of language reflects not only knowledge of how language is used but also how speakers can produce expressions based on the stored knowledge in the mind. Applied to the present topic, the preposition on, for example, in the sentences The books are on the desk, on expresses the meaning of above. The sentence means that the books are located above the desk. In You have blood on your tie, on expresses the meaning of covering the surface of. The sentence means that blood covers the surface of the tie. The generalization made from the actual uses of the preposition on is that in both instances on is used as a spatial preposition but with a different meaning.
2.2.3 Creativity In Cognitive Linguistics, language is the product of the creativity of speakers. Hamawand (2011:21) defines creativity as; “[t]he ability of language users to coin a novel expression from a conventional expression, or construe the same situation in alternate ways using different linguistic expressions”. Creativity is involved in the use of new expressions because the speaker has to determine linkage between the situation conceptualized and the linguistic form chosen. In the light of creativity principle, linguistic expressions embody different construals which speakers use to describe situations. Linguistic expressions are not synonymous even if they share the same source; each is assigned different meanings. Applied to the present topic, the prepositions at and against in the expressions He threw the stone at the glass and He threw the stone against the glass, for example, embody different construals. The first identifies the glass as a target. However, it does not say whether the target was actually hit. The second, by contrast, means that the glass was definitely hit by the stone.
8
2.2.4 Non modularity Cognitive linguistics holds a non modular view of language. Language is understood as a product of general cognitive abilities. Evans and Green (2006:41) assert that “[c]ognitive linguists specifically reject the claim that there is a distinct language module, which asserts that linguistic structure and organization are markedly distinct from other aspects of cognition.” Brenda (2014:35) states that, Cognitive theory of language rejects the notion of a language faculty being independent of other cognitive domains of human functioning. Even if a language faculty does exist, it is embedded in the wider complex of human cognitive abilities–not necessarily linguistic in character. According to cognitivist, the cognitive aspects of language cannot be ignored since the use of language is built upon human experience and involves cognitive processes. This view stands in contrast to the generative view that knowledge of language is independent of other mental processes. Chomsky (2002:106) asserts that Syntax is autonomous and generates structures of language independently of Semantics. For Langacker (1990:289), language is an integral part of human cognition and grammar is no longer an autonomous system since cognitive linguistics attempts to describe language by what is known about cognitive processes. Langacker also argues that (1987:1) syntax and semantics are inseparable. Applied to the present topic, the prepositions by and near require the interference of semantics and pragmatics in their description. By means very close to, as in She sat by the window. Near means close to, as in She sat near the window.
2.2.5 Semanticity In Cognitive Linguistics, all linguistic units are meaningful, be they a word or a phrase or a sentence. They have the ability to convey meaning by means of symbols. Meaning is equated with Conceptualization. Hamawand asserts that
9
Conceptualization refers to the mental act of construing a conceived situation in alternate ways (2011: 49). Langacker (1987:12) states “[f]rom the symbolic nature of language follows the centrality of meaning to virtually all linguistic concerns.” Meaning reflects not only the content of situation but also how the speakers construe and describe the content in alternate ways. Applied to the present topic, the preposition in, for example, is used to denote containment i.e. inside or towards the inside of a container, place or area. In the sentence There is water in the vase, in means containment. The sentence means that the vase acts as a container for the water. The preposition in also denotes forming a part of something. In the example Sarah is in UNICEF, in means part. The sentence means that she is a member of the organization.
2.3 Cognitive Semantics Cognitive Semantics is a part of Cognitive Linguistics, which began as a reaction against the formal theories of meaning like Truth-Conditional Semantics (Evan and Green; 2006:156). Cognitive Semantics studies the relationship between experience, the conceptual system, and the semantic structure encoded by language (Evans, et al. 2007: 5). The core idea of this approach is that the meaning of a linguistic expression does not refer to the entity in the real world, but a concept in the mind of the speakers. In TruthConditional approach meaning is viewed as the relationship between words and the world (Sweester; 1990:4). As Langacker (1997) states; the meaning of the linguistic expressions does not reside in its conceptual content alone, but includes the particular way of construing that content. Semantics does not reflect objective reality, but rather it is subjective in nature. This view originated from the subjectivist theory of meaning, which emphasizes the importance of world experience to the representation of linguistic expressions and recognizes the speaker’s capacity to describe a situation in alternate ways (Langacker 1991: 294). Cognitive
10
semanticists use language as the lens through which these cognitive phenomena can be investigated. Consequently, research in cognitive semantics is research on conceptual content and its organization in language (Talmy; 2000:4). Evans and Green (2006:157-163), Hamawand (2009:13), and Allwood and Gärdenfors (1999:21-25), assert that cognitive semantics is based on several basic assumptions. First, conceptual structure is embodied. The structure of language refers to the relation between human mind and bodily experience. Second, semantic structure is conceptual structure. The meaning of an expression does not refer to an entity in the real world, but to a concept in the mind of the speaker, which is perceptually built and experientially based. Third, meaning is motivated; that is to say, in any linguistic structure the relationship between form and meaning is not arbitrary. Fourth, meaning is encyclopedic in nature. That is, both linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge help to understand the meaning of an expression. Fifth, meaning is conceptualized. Meaning construction is a dynamic process whereby speakers depend on concepts existing in their minds and use construal theory to describe the situation in alternate ways. Of all the fundamental tenets, Cognitive Semantics applies the following three to the characterization of prepositions.
2.3.1 Categorization Categorization, as defined by Hamawand (2011:42) is the mental act of grouping together the various senses of a lexical item into a category, as defined by Radden and Dirven (2007:3), is a collection of similar meaningful and relevant experiences. Hamawand (2007:28) also defines category as a network of distant but related senses of a given lexical item. Linguistically, a category consists of a meaningful set of items, lexical or grammatical, which can be described with respect to an ideal archetype.
11
Conceptually, a category is a concept of thought. It subsumes a meaningful set of experiences which gather around an exemplary representative. In the cognitive account, linguistic items are polysemous, that is to say, they include a wide range of senses. These senses form a network that is structured around a central sense, referred to as the prototype. According to Langacker (1987: 369-381), Taylor (2002:9-10) and Hamawand (2011:42), a prototype is the member that has the core property of a category; it holds the salient sense that comes to mind first. Prototype serves as an ideal example from which periphery is derived. Periphery comprises the remaining senses, which are linked to a prototype via semantic extensions. In interpreting prepositions, categorization plays an important role. Applied to the present topic, the preposition to, for instance, is used prototypically to give a spatial sense of showing direction/destination as in They drove to Kirkuk. Peripherally, the preposition to conveys the sense of receiving, as in I’m deeply grateful to my teacher. The preposition to also conveys the sense of causing, as in To their great surprise, they all passed the exam. Another peripheral sense of the preposition to is, in connection with/relationship, as in What was their respond to your request?
2.3.2 Configuration Hamawand defines configuration as the mental act of grouping together a number of lexical items into a cognitive domain (2011:42). Langacker was the first who suggested the domain theory, as he (1987:147) mentions; all linguistic units are context-dependent to some degree. A context for the characterization of a semantic unit is referred to as a domain. Domains are necessarily cognitive entities: mental experiences, representational spaces, concepts, or conceptual complexes. A domain is a knowledge background in which the senses of a linguistic item can be described; this knowledge is derived from beliefs, customs, and practices. Taylor (2002:589) also claims that a domain is a
12
background knowledge in which our mental experiences are embedded. The structure of domain usually has a number of facets. According to Hamawand (2011:46), a facet is a piece of background knowledge that deals with a specific concept. Each facet is expressed by an appropriate form of language. A domain comprises a set of linguistic items linked in such a way that to understand the meaning of any linguistic item it is necessary to identify the domain it evokes and to relate it to the specific facet within it. The meaning of lexical items cannot be understood independently of the domains with which they are linked. Evans (2007:61) confirms that domains give a specific kind of coherent knowledge in which other kinds of conceptual units can be understood. Applied to the present topic, the prepositions over and above denote the same domain but with a difference in meaning. In There is something above the wall, it means there is something hanging on top of the wall. The contact between the wall and the thing is precluded. In There is something over the wall, it means there is something hanging on top of the wall and the contact between the thing and the wall is definite.
2.3.3 Conceptualization Conceptualization as described by Evans (2007:38), is “the process of meaning construction to which language contributes… it relates to the nature of dynamic thought to which language can contribute”. According to Langacker (1997:4-5) and Hamawand (2012:148), the semantic structure includes both conceptual content and a particular way of construing that content. The conceptual content is the semantic property inherent in a linguistic unit, while construal is the speaker’s ability to conceptualize a situation in different ways and use different linguistic expressions to represent them in discourse. The meaning of a linguistic expression does not just exist in its content, but rather in how the content is construed (Langacker, 1987:138) and (Hamawand, 2011: 49).
13
Langacker (1999:150) distinguishes different dimensions of construal. One dimension of construal is perspective, the viewpoint the speaker takes of a situation which differs relative to communicative needs. Two expressions may share the same conceptual content, but they differ semantically by virtue of their choice of construal. Hamawand (2008:42) illustrates that “[t]he different conceptualizations reflect different mental experiences of the speaker.” The construals serve to show that although words share the same content, they are distinctive in use. Applied to the present topic, the prepositions under and underneath, for instance, may seem to mean the same thing in some contexts, but in fact they have different communication effects. As can be seen, the two prepositions are not synonymous. Rather, they convey different meanings. In The pencil is under the table, under means there is a distance between the pencil and the table. In The pencil is underneath the book, underneath means the pencil is completely covered by the book in a way one can no longer see the pencil. Each member of a pair has a different use, which is a function of the construal imposed by the speaker on the conceptual content of both prepositions.
14
Chapter Three Categorization of spatial prepositions 3.1 Introduction Categorization, as defined by Taylor (1995: ix), is the “ability to see similarity in diversity”. Categorization is also described by Langacker (2013:17) as the clarification of experience with respect to previously existing structure. Categorization enables humans to understand the world since people make sense of their experiences in the world, and communicate their thoughts by means of categories. A category is a set of items judged equivalent for some purpose; such as the alternate senses of a lexical item constitute a category, equivalent in having the same phonological realization (Langacker; ibid). Categorization then is the mental process that enables human beings to group entities of the world by identifying similarities and differences between them, and mentally storing the concepts that stand for these entities (Hamawand; 2011:42). Taylor (1995: 52) asserts that categorization is a cognitive process involving the following activities: (i) forming a structural description of the entity; (ii) finding categories similar to the structural description; (iii) selecting the most similar representation; (iv) making inferences regarding the entity; and (v) storing information about the categorization in long-term memory.
3.2 Theories of Categorization To address the issue of categorization, linguists have developed two theories: the classical theory and the cognitive or the prototype theory. Both theories consider categories a fundamental means of making sense of experience. Yet, they stand in contrast to each other regarding how people categorize and on what bases they do so.
15
3.2.1 The Classical Theory According to the classical theory of categorization, which was adopted by Aristotle, every concept is associated with a set of defining features. The features are individually necessary and together sufficient for an entity to be a member of a category. If any of the features is not exhibited by the entity, then it is not a member of the category (Hamawand; 2009:51). The classical theory has treated category membership as a digital, all-or-none phenomenon (Evans and Green; 2006:168). Furthermore, human cognitive capacities play no role in shaping the nature of categories. The margins are clearly defined, so membership in a category is clear-cut. Each feature is equally necessary for membership in the category, they are either present or not; they cannot apply only to some degree. Accordingly, each member is equally representative of the category. Hence, there is no better member of the category than the others. For instance; to say that an X is a Y, is to assign an entity X to the category Y. This is done by checking the properties of X against the features which are associated to the definition of the category Y; knowledge of this set of features characterizes one’s knowledge of the meaning of Y. Taylor (1995: 23-24) has summarized the main tenets of the classical theory into four points. First, categories are defined in terms of a conjunction of necessary and sufficient features. Second, features are binary. They are an affair of all or nothing; the entity either possesses the feature or not. Third, categories have clear boundaries, once they are established; it divides the inverse into two sets of entities; those that are included in the category and those that are not. There are no in between cases, where an entity which in a way or to some extent belong to the category. Fourth, all members of a category have equal status; there are no degrees of membership in a category. An entity which presents all the defining features of a category is a full member of that category; an entity which does not present all the defining features is not a member.
16
3.2.2 The Prototype Theory In accordance with the cognitive approach to categorization, categories are not defined in terms of shared properties of their members. Rather, they are defined in terms of the peculiarities of human understanding or human capacity of conceptualization. This approach to categorization stands in contrast to the classical theory. First, categories are not a matter of all or nothing; they are defined in terms of a prototype. The prototype is the first sense that comes to mind; it is the main sense which the peripheries are derived from. It is the essential sense in its capacity to clarify the other senses (Dirven and Verspoor; 2004:30). On the other hand, the periphery of a category includes the remaining instances. As Hamawand (2009:13) states, the senses are related to each other like the members of a family, where they share some general properties but vary in specific details. Second, members of a category have a different status; the member that has the attribute carry more weight and is considered the prototype, i.e. the peripheral and the prototypical senses are not equal. Third, categories have vague boundaries; some members do not confirm rigidly to the central member, i.e. the peripheral members belong to the category, and they are not excluded from the category. Fourth, category membership is flexible; it is defined by similarity rather than identity. It is a matter of degree. Let us take bird as an example to explain the prototype and periphery concepts. The category bird is composed of various similar members such as sparrow, owl, robin, dove, canary, chicken, penguin, and ostrich. These are different types of birds, but they are similar enough to count as members of the same category bird. But one can feel that some of these types of birds fit the idea of the category bird better than others. Thus, Robin would be viewed as a prototypical member of the bird category because it has almost all the features that one first thinks about bird category. The other examples of birds would be considered less prototypical members of this category; they are regarded as peripheral members because they have some but not all the features. Even
17
though, they are included in the category. In Hamawand’s (2008:19) words, a likely candidate for a prototype should satisfy three criteria: First, it should be the sense that comes to mind first. Second, it is the sense that is most predominant in the semantic network. Third, it should be the sense which other senses would most naturally be derived from. From the categorization theory, it is concluded that linguistic expressions form complex categories and that each linguistic expression has multiple senses related to each other by semantic principles. The prototype approach is important for the description of lexical items. Hamawand (2007: 48-49) mentions three advantages of the prototype approach. One advantage is that it presents the notion of gradation in the characterization of a lexical item. The lexical items exhibit minimal differences in their senses than binary or plus-or-minus qualities. Another advantage is that it includes conforming and non-conforming senses in the characterization of a lexical item. A further advantage is that it accounts for the role of the human in structuring the world and permits the mental capacities to shape language.
3.3 Categorization of spatial prepositions In sketching the semantic network of the spatial prepositions and detecting their meanings, the study relied on dictionaries such as CALD (2008), LDCE (2009), OALD (2010), and works of Lee (2001), Tyler and Evans (2003), Swan (2005), Lindstromberg (2010).
3.3.1 Above Prototypically, the preposition above denotes higher position meaning situated directly up and separated from. Above is used to give the meaning of in or to a higher position than somebody or something else. In He had a bruise just above his left eye, above means higher position. The sentence means the bump on his face was on the upper part of his left eye.
18
Peripherally, the preposition above exhibits the following senses: a) Place Aforementioned. Above is used to refer to place and give the meaning of aforementioned. It is used in formal situations to mean in the same piece of writing. In As mentioned above, there is a service charge, above conveys the meaning of aforementioned. The sentence means it has been stated before that there will be cost for service. b) Measurement Transcendent. Above is used to refer to measurement and give the meaning of transcendent. It is used to mean more than a number, amount or level. In The top of mountain Everest is 8848m above the sea level, above conveys the meaning of transcendent. The sentence means the highest point on Everest is 8848m higher than sea level. c) Position a. Rank. Above is used to refer to abstract position and give the sense of rank. Above conveys the meaning of in a more important or advance position than someone else. In Sarah is a grade above me, above gives the meaning of rank. The sentence means she is in a more advanced level than me. b. Exceeding the limit. Above means that something is too important for something. In No one is above the law, above carries the meaning of exceeding the limit. The sentence means that there is no person who is more important than the law. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition above is offered in Figure 1. Note that the solid arrows represent the prototypical sense, whereas the broken arrows represent the semantic extensions.
19
Figure 1. The semantic network of the preposition above
3.3.2 Across Prototypically, across as a preposition, expresses the sense of sides: meaning from one side of something to the other with clear limits such as an area of land, or a road or river. Across gives the sense of movement. In They walked across the field, across conveys the meaning of moving from one side to the other. The sentence means they went on foot from one side of the field to the other. Peripherally, the preposition across conveys the following senses: a) Place a. Opposite. Across is used to mean on the opposite side of. In The library is just across the road, across carries the meaning of opposite. The sentence means that the library is located on the opposite side of the road. b. In every part of. Across is used to mean in every part of a place or country. In Friends TV series became popular across the world, across conveys the meaning of in every part of. The sentence means that Friends TV series became famous in every part of the world.
20
b) Measurement Measure. Across is used to show how wide something is. In The river is 2 kilometers across, across denotes measure. The sentence means that the width of the river is 2 kilometers. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition across is offered in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The semantic network of the preposition across
3.3.3 Against Prototypically, the preposition against conveys the meaning of touching, meaning next to, hit’s, rub’s a surface or being supported by (something). Against expresses the sense of stability. In The sound of the rain was drumming against my window, against means touching. The sentence means that the drops of the rain were hitting the window. Peripherally, the preposition against conveys the following senses:
21
a) Manner a. Opposing. Against means in opposition to or someone disagrees or opposes with something, a plan or an activity. In Every council member voted against the proposal, against meanings opposing. The sentence means that all the members of the council disagreed with the proposal.
b. Opposite direction. Against is used to express in the opposite direction of something. In They were sailing against the wind, against means in opposite direction. The sentence means that the ship was sailing in the opposite direction of the wind. b) Action a. Facing. Against is used to mean someone who is competing with someone or something. In Germany is playing against Brazil in the cup final tonight, against means facing. The sentence means the team of Germany will compete with the team of Brazil in the finals tonight.
b. Protection. Against is used to mean protecting someone or something from. In White blood cells help defend the body against infection, against means protection. The sentence means that the function of the white blood cells is to protect the body from the bacteria that causes infection. c) Time a. Be ready for. Against is used with time to mean be ready for. In Iraq must prepare against the day when there is no more oil, against means be ready for. The sentence means that the country must get ready for the day where there is no longer oil.
22
A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition against is offered in Figure 3.
Figure 3. The semantic network of the preposition against
3.3.4 At Prototypically, the preposition at refers to a location at a zero dimension. It is used to show position, place of somebody or something. In She is sitting at the table, the preposition at refers to the place where the person is sitting, which is the table. At constitutes a spatial relation in which a place is thought of as a point rather than an area. Peripherally the preposition at exhibits the following senses: a) Time Time/age. At is used to show an exact or a particular time or age. In Are you free at lunchtime?, at refers to the exact time of lunch. In In theory, women can still have children at the age of 50, at displays the age at which it is still possible for women to bear children.
23
b) Manner a. Direction. At is used to mean towards or in the direction of. In He threw the ball at Sarah, at shows that Sarah was the target, the direction at which the ball was thrown. b. Cause. At is used to show the cause of something, especially a feeling. In We were surprised at the news, at shows the reason of their being surprised which is the news that they have received. c. Judgment. At is used to show the activity in which somebody’s ability is being judged. In Sarah is really brilliant at scrabble, at gives the meaning that in judging Sarah’s ability at scrabble she is very good. d. Condition. At is used to show state, condition or continuous activity. In A country at war, at denotes the state of a country which is not in peace. e. Attempt. At is used to describe what someone tries to do. In Her first attempt at a piece of research, at shows that she is trying for the first time to write a research. c) Measurement a. Amount. At is used to show price, temperature, rate, speed, level, etc. In He was driving at 120mph when the police spotted him, at is used to display the speed of the car when the police saw him. b. Distance. At is used to show distance away from something. In I held it at arm’s length, at shows the distance at which the thing was grasped. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition at is offered in Figure 4.
24
Figure 4. The semantic network of the preposition at
3.3.5 Before Prototypically, before, as a preposition, expresses earlier. In The new road should be completed before the end of the year, before means earlier than. The sentence means the new road must be finished earlier than the end of the year. Peripherally, the preposition before exhibits the following senses: a) Place a. Anteriority. Before means in front of someone or something; a head of someone or something else in a list or order i.e. the position of someone or something. In There were people before me in the queue, before denotes anteriority. The sentence means that there were people standing in front of me. b. Place. Before means if one place is before another place on a road or journey, the position of the first place is nearer to you than the second, so you will reach it first. In The house is 100m before the police station, before means place. The sentence means the house is nearer to you than the police station and you will reach it first.
25
b) Manner a. Priority. Before expresses the meaning of one thing or person is considered more important than another. In I put my kids before anyone else, before denotes priority. The sentence means that I regard my kids to be more important than anyone else. b. Examination. Before conveys the meaning of someone or something comes to be formally examined, judged or considered by a person or group of people. In The proposal was put before the parliament, before means examination. The sentence means the suggestion was given to the parliament to be examined/ judged. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition before is offered in Figure 5.
Figure 5. The semantic network of the preposition before
3.3.6 Behind Prototypically, the preposition behind expresses the sense of at the back of; meaning at the back of a thing or a person. Behind gives the sense of position. In Dana sat behind the desk, behind means at the back of. The sentence means that Dana rested on a chair that is positioned at the back of the desk.
26
Peripherally, the preposition behind exhibits the following senses: a) Manner a. Responsible for. Behind is used to refer to manner and give the meaning of responsible for. Behind is used to mean responsible for a plan or an idea i.e. responsible for starting or developing something. In ISIS is behind the Spiker massacre, Behind conveys the meaning of responsible for. The sentence means that ISIS is responsible for Spiker slaughter.
b. Supporting. Behind is used to refer to manner and give the meaning of supporting. Behind is used to mean supporting a person or an idea…etc. i.e. giving support to somebody/something. In I’m lucky because my parents are behind me all the time, Behind conveys the meaning of supporting. The sentence means that I consider myself to be lucky because of my parent’s support all the time. c. No longer. Behind is used to refer to manner and give the meaning of no longer. Behind is used to mean no longer as in if an unpleasant experience or situation is behind someone, it no longer upsets or affects you i.e. something is in somebody’s past. In To start a new life, she put all her worries behind her, behind means no longer. The sentence means in order to begin a new life she tried to be no longer affected by her fears. b) Time Late. Behind is used to refer to time and give the meaning of late. Behind is used to mean someone is late in doing what they have to do. In We are behind the schedule, behind means late. The sentence means that we are late regarding the timetable i.e. not ready at the time planned. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition behind is offered in Figure 6.
27
Figure 6. The semantic network of the preposition behind
3.3.7 Below Prototypically, the preposition below carries the sense of low position referring to in or to a lower place or position (than), under. In the sentence The author’s name was printed below the title, below means lower position. The sentence means the name of the writer was written under the title. Peripherally, below conveys the following senses: a) Measurement Less. Below is used to express less than a particular number, amount or level. In the example The temperature has fallen below zero, below means less. The sentence means the temperature has dropped to less than zero. b) Position Rank. Below gives the meaning of lower in rank or less important than somebody or something. In A police sergeant is below an inspector, below means rank. The sentence means a policeman who is titled as a
28
sergeant is in lower rank, less importance than one who is titled as an inspector. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition below is offered in Figure 7.
Figure 7. The semantic network of the preposition below
3.3.8 Beyond Prototypically, beyond as a preposition, expresses the sense of further away: meaning further away in distance (than something). Beyond gives the sense of position. In The house is beyond the hill, beyond conveys the meaning of further away. The sentence means that the house is positioned further away in distance that the hill. Peripherally, the preposition beyond conveys the following senses: a) Time Later than. Beyond is used to refer to time and give the meaning of later than. Beyond is used to mean later than a particular time. In The party went on beyond midnight, beyond means later than. The sentence means that the party lasted later than midnight.
29
b) Measurement More than. Beyond is used to refer to measurement and give the meaning of more than. Beyond is used to mean more or greater than a particular amount, level or limit. In His condition was beyond what the doctors imagined, beyond means more than. The sentence means that his illness was more than what the doctors thought. c) Manner a. Out of limit. Beyond is used to refer to manner and give the meaning of out of limit. Beyond is used to mean outside the range or limits of something or someone. In Math is completely beyond me, beyond means out of limit. The sentence means that I find math to be outside my limit of comprehension. b. Impossible. Beyond is used to refer to manner and give the meaning of impossible. Beyond is used to say that something is not possible to do. In The car is beyond repair, beyond means impossible. The sentence means that the car is wrecked in a way that is impossible to be fixed. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition beyond is offered in Figure 8.
Figure 8. The semantic network of the preposition beyond
30
3.3.9 By Prototypically, the preposition by conveys the meaning of a close distance away. It entails being neither in, nor on, nor at the landmark but near it. By gives the sense of proximity. In They live by the sea, by means a close distance away. The sentence means the house where they live in is close to the sea. Peripherally, by shows the following senses: a) Manner a. Means. By is used to show how something is done; what means or instrument someone uses to do something. In Send the letter by email, by denotes means. The sentence means that one can use email as a mean to forward a letter. b. According to. By conveys the meaning according to a particular rule, method, or way of doing things. In You have got to play by the rule, by means according to. The sentence means you have to play the game according to the rules. b) Time a. Exact time. By is used to express exact time; at or before. In She promised me to be back by 5 o’clock, by denotes exact time. The sentence means she assured me that she will come back home exactly at 5 o’clock. b. During. By is used to convey the meaning of during. In We travelled by night and rested by day, by means during. The sentence means we travelled during the night and rested during the day.
31
c) Measurement a. Proportion. By is used to show proportion or amount. In Their wages were decreased by 30%, by denotes proportion. The sentence means thirty percent of their salary was reduced. b. Divide. By is used when talking about multiplying or dividing two numbers. In What is 16 divided by 4? by means divide. The sentence means what is the result of dividing those two numbers? d) Action a. Past. By shows the meaning of near, at the side of (in distance or in time) or past. In She went by the station, by means past. The sentence means she went past the station. b. Sequential. By is used to mean gradual change; saying that something happens gradually. The sense can also be used to mean quick change; used to say that something or someone is quickly becoming worse, better etc. In My father’s condition was growing serious by the hour, by means sequential. The sentence means my father’s illness was changing quickly to the worse. c. Emphasis. By is used to express strong feeling or making serious promise. In By God, I will kill him if he betrayed me, by means emphasis. The sentence means I swear I will murder him if he deceived me. d. Visit. By denotes in order to visit a person or a place for a short time. In On the way, I stopped by the post-office, by means visit. The sentence means when I was coming home I visited the post-office. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition by is offered in Figure 9.
32
Figure 9. The semantic network of the preposition by
3.3.10 In Prototypically, the preposition in conveys containment referring to the inside or towards the inside of a container, place or area, or surrounded or closed off by something. In Sarah lives in a charming old cottage, in means she is living inside the place which is the cottage. Peripherally, the preposition in expresses the following senses: a) Place a. Involved. In conveys the meaning of being involved, take part, used, or connected with a particular subject, activity or job. In She is hoping to get a job in advertising, in gives the meaning of being involved. The sentence means she wishes to be working in the field of advertisement. b. Characteristic. In is used to show which characteristic or part of person or thing is being described. In Sarah is deaf in her left ear, in shows the sense of characteristic. The sentence describes a characteristic of Sarah which is not being able to hear anything in her left ear. c. Address. In is used with address to give the name of the street. In Sarah lives in Kurdsat Street, in means to give address. The sentence means that she is living in a district where the street’s name is Kurdsat.
33
b) Time a. During. In is used to refer to time and give the sense of a course of time or period. In We are going to Italy in April, in refers to time and gives the sentence the meaning of during April we are traveling to Italy. b. No more than. In is used to refer to time by conveying the meaning of needing or using no more time than a particular amount of time. In Bolt can run a mile in five minutes, in means not more than five minutes. c. Before the end. In is used to refer to time, which means before or at the end of a particular period. In Dinner will be ready in ten minutes, in conveys the sense of before the end i.e. ten minutes, dinner will be ready. c) Manner a. Part. In is used to give the meaning of forming a part of something. In He used to be the lead singer in a rock ‘n’ roll band, in gives the meaning that he was a member in the band. b. Experiencing. In is used to mean experiencing a situation or condition or feeling an emotion. In Have you ever been in love?, in conveys the state of experiencing a strong emotion like love. c. Expressed. In carries the meaning of expressed or written in a particular way. In Sarah usually paints in watercolor, in conveys the meaning of expressed. The sentence means that most of the times Sarah expresses herself by using watercolor in her paintings. d. Arrangement. In is used to indicate how things or people are arranged or divided. In We all sat in a circle, in gives the sense of arrangement. The sentence describes the way the people sat which was in the shape of a circle. e. Approximation. In is used to refer to someone’s age or weather temperature. In Nowadays many women are in their late thirties when they have their first child, in is used to roughly show the age of most women who have their first babies. In The temperature is expected to be
34
in the twenties tomorrow, in is used to show that the weather would be more or less in the twenties degree. f. Proportion. In is used to compare one part of an amount of something with the total amount of it. In the example Apparently one person in ten has problems with reading, in is used to compare amounts of people. The sentence means in every ten people there is one that has problems with reading. g. Result. In is used to refer to something that is done as a result of something else. In He refused to say anything in reply to the journalist’s question, in means result. The sentence means in return to the journalist’s question he declined to say anything. h. Cause. When in is followed by (verb+ing); it is used to indicate when doing one thing is the cause of another thing happening. In In refusing to work abroad, she missed an excellent job opportunity, in means cause. The sentence means she lost a great job opportunity because of refusing to work out of the country. i. Wearing. In is used to mean wearing something. In Do you recognize that man in Grey suit?, in demonstrates the sense of wearing. The meaning of the sentence is that whether you identify the man who is wearing the Grey suit. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition in is offered in Figure 10.
35
Figure 10. The semantic network of the preposition in
36
3.3.11 In front of Prototypically, the preposition in front of conveys the meaning of near referring to a position close to the front part of something; the thing is perceptually accessible i.e. it is in reach. In There is a parking space in front of the hotel, in front of means near. The sentence means the parking space is near the hotel, one can reach it easily and park his/her car. Peripherally, the preposition in front of gives the meaning of seeing/hearing referring to where someone can see or hear you. In Please do not swear in front of the children, in front of means see/hear. The sentence means please do not utter offensive words where the children can hear you. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition in front of is offered in Figure 11.
Figure 11. The semantic network of the preposition in front of
3.3.12 Into Prototypically, the preposition into carries the sense of inside; it conveys the meaning of that the destination/goal is towards the inside or middle of something and about to be contained, surrounded or closed off by something. In There must be another way into the cave, into means inside. The sentence means there must be another road that leads to inside the cave. Peripherally, the preposition into exhibits the following senses:
37
a) Place a. Touching forcefully. Into shows a movement which involves something touching something else with a lot of force but without moving inside it. In The plane crashed into the mountainside, into means touching forcefully. The sentence means the plane hit the mountainside forcefully. b. Towards. Into conveys the meaning of in the direction of something or someone. In She was looking straight into his eyes, into means towards. The sentence means she was staring directly in the direction of his eyes. b) Time Time. Into expresses the meaning of to a point during a period of time; at or until a certain time. In She was well into her forties before she got married, into means time. The sentence means she was forty years old when she got married. c) Measurement Division. Into is used to refer to the division of one number by another number. In What is 6 into 3? into means division. The sentence means what is the result of the equation 6 divided by 3. d) Manner a. Change. Into is used to show when a person or a thing is changing from one form or condition to another. In Peel the apple and chop it into small cubes, into means change. The sentence means change the form of the apple from round to the shape of cubes. b. About. Into expresses involving or about something. In the sentence An inquiry into the cause of the accident, into means about. The sentence means an investigation about what caused the accident.
38
c. Interested. Into is used to mean being enthusiastic about, interested in or concerning something. In He is into Sci-fi movies, into means interested. He finds sci-fi movies interesting to watch. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition into is offered in Figure 12.
Figure 12. The semantic network of the preposition into
3.3.13 Near Prototypically, the preposition near conveys the meaning of a short distance away. Near is used to give the meaning of only a short distance from a person or thing; not far away in distance i.e. proximity. In They live near Erbil, near means a short distance away. The sentence means they settle not far away from the city of Erbil. Peripherally, near expresses the following senses: a) Time Not far away in time. Near is used to mean soon before a particular time or event. In As the date of his operation drew near, he became
39
more and more anxious, near means not far away in time. The sentence means he grew more nervous as the time of his surgery came closer. b) Manner a. In the state of. Near is used to mean almost in a particular state, condition, amount or level. In The runner looked near exhaustion, near means in the state of. The sentence means the jogger looked almost fatigued. b. Similar to. Near is used to mean similar to somebody or something in quality, size, etc. referring to if something is near something else it is similar to it. In The feelings I had were near hysteria, near means similar to. The sentence means the emotions I experienced were similar to that of hysteria. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition near is offered in Figure 13.
Figure 13. The semantic network of the preposition near
3.3.14 On Prototypically, the preposition on denotes location (physical). It indicates the sense of above. It is used to show that something is physically located above something else and touching it, or that something is moving into such position.
40
Accordingly two entities are in physical contact with each other, with one positioned above the surface of the other and supported by it. In Look at all the books on your desk, the preposition on denotes location and means above. The sentence means that the books are in a position above or touching the surface of the desk and that they are supported by the surface of the desk. Peripherally, the preposition on expresses the following senses: a) Location (not physical) a. Direction. On is used to mean towards or in the direction of. In Our house is the first on the left after the police station, on means direction. The sentence means that the house is located on the left after the police station. b. Next to/ along the side of. On is used to mean next to or along the side of. In Cambridge is on the River Cam, on means next to/along the side of. The sentence means that Cambridge is located along side of the River Cam. c. Possession. On is used to show when someone has something with them in their pocket or in a bag that they are carrying. In Have you got a spare cigarette on you? on means possession. The sentence means do you have an extra cigarette with you? d. Burden. On expresses causing somebody problems, referring to when something bad or unwanted, an unwelcomed state or event happens to someone. In The car died on me, on means burden. The sentence means I had trouble getting to my destination due to a malfunction in my car. e. Writing. On is used to present where something has been written, printed or drawn. In Which page is that lasagna recipe on? on means writing. The sentence means what is the number of the page where the recipe of the dish is written?
41
f. Recording. On is used to show the form in which something is recorded or performed. In The movie in now available on DVD, on means recording. The sentence means the movie is also recorded on DVD and it is now on hand. g. Pain. On is used to express the meaning of what causes pain or injury as a result of being touched. In She pricked her finger on the needle, on means pain. The sentence means she caused herself pain as a result of touching the needle. b) Time a. Time. On is used to show when something happens. In Shops do not open on Sundays, on shows the time when the shops are closed which is on Sundays. b. After. On expresses the meaning happening after and usually because of or immediately after. In On their return they discovered that their house has been burgled, on means after. The sentence means immediately after coming back home they realized that they have been robbed. c. Availability . On is used to mean availability. When one says an event or a thing is on, it denotes that it exists or that it is available. In The book is on sale, on means available. The sentence means that the book is available for people to buy. c) Manner a. Covering. On is used to give the meaning of covering the surface of, or being held by. In You have got blood on your shirt, on means covering. The sentence means there is blood covering the surface of your shirt. b. Process. On is used to show that a process or a condition is being experienced. In She set her car on fire, on means process. The sentence means she experienced the process of her car burning.
42
c. Relation. On expresses the meaning of relating to. In A book on pregnancy, on means relation. The sentence means the book deals with pregnancy. d. Involvement. On is used to show when someone is involved or taking part in something. In Sarah is working on a new book, on means involvement. The sentence means she is occupied with writing a new book. e. Using.
On is used to give the meaning of using. In She is on
Ciprofloxacin, on means using. The sentence means that she is using ciprofloxacin as a medicine for her illness. f. Member. On is used to show that someone is a member of a group or organization. In There are no women on the committee, on means member. The sentence means that no woman is a member in a particular committee. g. Tool. On is used to refer to a tool, instrument, or system that is used to do something. In the example I am on the computer, on means tool. The sentence means I am using the computer as a tool to do my work. h. Order. On expresses the meaning of as a result of someone’s order, request or advice. In He was killed on the king’s orders, on means order. The sentence means as a result of the king’s order someone was killed. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition on is offered in Figure 14. Note that the solid arrow represents the prototypical sense, whereas the broken arrows represent the semantic extension.
43
Figure 14. The semantic network of the preposition on
44
3.3.15 Onto Prototypically the preposition onto denotes movement, referring to a movement into or on the surface of a particular place. In I slipped as I stepped onto the platform, onto means movement. The sentence means I fell as I walked on the platform. Peripherally, onto expresses the following senses: a) Place Adding. Onto is used to give the meaning of someone or something that is added to or joins a particular thing. In I have been having problems loading this software onto my computer, the sentence means I could not add this software to my computer system. b) Manner a. Shifting. Onto is used to show that one is about changing to, or starting to talk about a different subject. In I would now like to come onto my next point, onto means shifting. The sentence means that I would like to shift the subject and start discussing my next point. b. Holding. Onto conveys the meaning of to keep holding something. In Hold onto my hand and you will not get lost, onto means holding. The sentence means do not let go of my hand and you will not get lost. c. Knowing. Onto is used to mean knowing about someone or something that can be useful to you or knowing about something bad someone has done. In the example He knows we are onto him, onto means knowing. The sentence means he is aware that he has done something bad and we are trying to get him. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition onto is offered in Figure 15.
45
Figure 15. The semantic network of the preposition onto
3.3.16 Over Prototypically, the preposition over denotes above/higher position referring to above or higher than something without touching and sometimes so that one thing covers the other. Over does not mean there is definitely no contact; but suggests the two entities to be relatively close. In A lamp hang over the table, over means above/higher position. The sentence means the lamp dangled in a position higher than the table. Peripherally, over exhibits the following senses: a) Place a. Covering. Over gives the meaning of on something or in a position that is covering something. In I put a shawl over my shoulders, over means covering. The sentence means I laid the shawl on my shoulders; the shawl covered my shoulders. b. Across. Over is used to express across from one side of something to the other side of it, especially by going up and then down. In She jumped over the gate, over means across. The sentence means she went from one side of the door to the other side.
46
c. Other side. Over gives the meaning of on the opposite side of something from where you already are. In There is a bus stop just over the road, over means other side. The sentence means one can find a bus stop on the other side of the road. b) Time During. Over exhibits the meaning of during a particular period of time, during something or while doing something. In I was in Tehran over Nawroz, over means during. The sentence means I was in Iran during Nawroz. c) Measurement a. More than. Over is used to give the meaning of more than or increasing to further than a particular limit or point. In They are already $25 million over budget, over means more than. The sentence means they went further than/exceeded the limits of their financial plan. b. Math. Over is used in talking about a calculation in which one number is divided by another number. In 42 over 6 is 7, over means math. The sentence means when 42 is divided by 6 the result is 7. d) Manner a. Falling. Over means falling down from somewhere or falling because of stepping on something. In She tripped over the rug, over means falling. The sentence means she stumbled/fell down on the carpet. b. Connected with/concerning. Over gives the meaning of connected with or about in referring to a cause of interest, worry or discussion, etc. In There is no point in arguing over something so unimportant, over mean connected with/concerning. The sentence means it is useless to quarrel about something trivial.
47
c. Control. Over is used to denote the meaning of in control of, influencing someone or something. In Genghis ruled over an empire that stretched from Persia across to China, over means control. The sentence means Genghis Khan controlled an empire that extended from Persia to china. d. No longer affected. Over means to feel physically or mentally better after an illness or an upsetting experience. If one is over an illness or bad experience then they are no longer affected by it. In She is over him now, over means no longer affected. The sentence means she does not love him anymore i.e. she is no longer affected by her feelings for him. e. Using. Over expresses the meaning of using, usually using telephone or radio. In I bought the tickets over the internet, over means using. The sentence means I used the internet to buy the tickets. f. Preferring. Over is used to express the meaning of if one choses one thing over the other, s/he prefers that thing rather than the other. In the example Why did you choose to be a Cardiologist over a Neurologist? over means preferring. The sentence means why he preferred to major in cardiology rather than neurology? A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition over is offered in Figure 16.
48
Figure 16. The semantic network of the preposition over
49
3.3.17 Past Prototypically, past as a preposition, expresses the sense of further/beyond, referring to movement in or to a position that is further than/beyond a particular point, place. In She walked right past me without noticing me, past means further/beyond. The sentence means she did not see me even though she walked exactly beside the point where I was standing. Peripherally, the preposition past demonstrates the following senses: a. After (Time/age). Past is used to give the sense of later than a particular time, age or limit. In It was past midnight when the party ended, past means after (time/age). The sentence means the party was over after midnight. b. Up to and further than. Past expresses up to and further than someone or something without stopping. In She waved as she drove past, past means up to and further. The sentence means she waved to us as she drove by and further from us. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition past is offered in Figure 17.
Figure 17. The semantic network of the preposition past
50
3.3.18 Through Prototypically, the preposition through conveys the sense of one side to another referring to movement into, then out the other end or side (path). In They walked slowly through the woods, through means one side to another. The sentence means they walked on foot from one side of the woods to the other. Peripherally, through exhibits the following senses: a) Time Until/Time. Through is used to give the meaning from the beginning to the end of a period of time; during and to the end of a period of time. In He slept through the day, through means until/time. The sentence means he slept during and until the end of the day. b) Action a. Process. Through denotes from the start to the end of something, experience or process.
In The books guides you through the whole
procedure of buying a house, through means process. The sentence means the book will show you the process of buying a house from the begging until the end. b. Using. Through expresses the meaning of using, or by. In She met her husband through a dating agency, through means using. The sentence means she saw her husband by using a dating organization. c. Past. Through is used to give the meaning of past a place, a barrier, stage or test. In This is the first time they have ever made it through the finals, through means past. The sentence means this is the first time they past to the finals i.e. the first time they participate in the final stage.
51
c) Manner Result. Through is used to mean because of something; as a result of. In A lot of water is wasted through leakage, through means result. The sentence means a great amount of water is squandered as a result of leaking. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition through is offered in Figure 18.
Figure 18. The semantic network of the preposition through
3.3.19 To Prototypically, the preposition to indicates the sense of showing direction/destination. In this sense to is used to give the meaning of in the direction of, the destination of something or someone is. To expresses the sense of goal.
In
They
drove
to
Beirut
last
year,
to
means
showing
direction/destination. The sentence means last year they had a road trip and their destination was Beirut. Their goal was to reach Lebanon. Peripherally the preposition to expresses the following senses:
52
a) Place a. Receiving. To expresses the meaning of who receives something, is told or shown something or who experiences an action. In the sentence Who should I make out this check to? to means receiving. The sentence means what is the name of the person who would receive the amount of money. b. Against. To is used to say one thing is very near or touching another. In They danced cheek to cheek, to means against. The sentence means they danced so close to each other that their cheeks were touching. b) Time Until. To is used to express time and give the meaning of until a particular time, state or level is reached and it is also used to express extreme state. In She sang the baby to sleep, to means until. The sentence means the woman caroled until the baby fell asleep. In I was bored to tears, to means until. The sentence means I was in the state of extreme boredom that I wanted to cry. c) Measurement a. For each/measurement. To expresses the meaning of per or how many parts make up a whole unit of measurement or money. In This car does about fifty miles to a gallon, to means for each/measurement. The sentence means the car burns a gallon of petrol for every fifty miles. b. Between. To expresses the meaning of between when it is used in phrases which show a range. In There must have been thirty to thirty-five people there, to means between. The sentence means the number of the people who were in that place were between thirty and thirty-five.
53
d) Manner a. In connection with/relationship. To expresses the meaning in connection with, concerning or showing the relationship between one person or thing and another. In ISIS is a threat to world peace, to means in connection with/ relationship. The sentence means concerning the world peace, ISIS is considered a threat. b. Causing. To is used to mean causing a particular feeling in a particular person. In To their great surprise, they all passed the exam, to means causing. The sentence means they did not expect to pass in the exam and when they did they were all shocked. c. Considered by. To expresses the meaning of considered by. In I realized it may sound strange to you, to means considered by. The sentence means you may consider what I am about to tell to be odd. d. Matching. To is used to give the meaning of matching or belonging to, or having as a characteristic feature. In I have lost the trousers to this jacket, to means matching. The sentence gives the meaning of I cannot find the trousers that matches or belongs to this jacket. In There is a softer side to her nature, to means matching. The sentence means although she appears to be tough in character but she is gentler than she seems to be. e. Compared with. To gives the meaning of compared with, and the meaning of showing the position of something or someone in comparison with something or someone else. In Sarah beat me by three games to two, to means compared with. The sentence means Sarah has more winnings compared to me. In Vania is standing to the left of Shania in the photo, to means compared with. The sentence shows the position of Vania in the photo in comparison to the position of her sister which is to her left. f. In honor of. To is used to express in honor or memory of. In I proposed a toast to the bride and the groom, to means in honor of. The sentence means out of respect for the bride and the groom I proposed a toast.
54
g. Serving. To mean serving. In He was a footman to the king, to means serving. The sentence means he served the king as a footman. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition to is offered in Figure 19.
55
Figure 19. The semantic network of the preposition to
56
3.3.20 Under Prototypically, the preposition under conveys the notion of lower position, referring to below the surface, below something; in, to, or through a position below or lower than something else, often so that one thing covers the other. In She put the thermometer under my tongue, under means lower position. The sentence means she placed the thermometer in a lower position than my tongue so that my tongue covered it. Peripherally, under conveys the following senses: a) Place Place in list. Under means if a book, article or piece of information is under a particular title, you can find it below or following that title in a list, book or library, etc. In Books on Shakespeare would be under Elizabethan literature, under means place in list. The sentence means Shakespeare’s works are placed under the Elizabethan literature list. b) Measurement Less than. Under is used to express the meaning of less than; usually less than a particular number, amount, age or price. In If you get under %50, you have failed the exam, under means less than. The sentence means if you score less that 50 you will not pass the exam. c) Manner a. Control. Under gives the meaning of controlled or governed by a particular person, organization or force. In I wonder what Britain was like under the Romans, under means control. The sentence means I am curious about how was Britain during when it was controlled by the Romans.
57
b. Rule/law. Under means according to a rule or law. In Under the new law, all students must carry badges at all times, under means rule/law. The sentence means in accordance with the new rule, all the students are ought to carry their identity cards all the times. c. In a particular state. Under expresses the meaning of in a particular state or condition. In Students are allowed to miss school under certain circumstances, under means in a particular state. The sentence means only in particular conditions students are permitted to miss school. d. In progress. Under is used to say something is happening at the moment but it is not finished. In Several different plans are under discussion, under means in progress. The sentence means there are more than a few plans discussed but not finished yet. e. Name. Under is used when using a particular name, especially one that is not your real name. In For his own safety, he has to operate under a false name, under means name. The sentence means in order to be safe he does not use his real name but an alias. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition under is offered in Figure 20.
Figure 20. The semantic network of the preposition under
58
3.3.21 Underneath Prototypically, the preposition underneath denotes under/ below; referring to the meaning of on the lower surface of something, directly under another object or covered by it. Underneath is used especially to emphasize that something completely covers, touches, or hides something. In There is a spare set of keys underneath the flower pot, underneath means under/below. The sentence means extra keys are places under the pot; the pot covers the keys. Peripherally, underneath expresses character, it used to say what someone’s character is really like when their behavior shows a different character. In She seems confident, but she is really quite shy underneath, underneath means character. The sentence means she appears to be sure of herself but she is really shy under that character. A graphical representation of the multiple senses of the preposition underneath is offered in Figure 21.
Figure 21. The semantic network of the preposition underneath
59
Chapter Four Configuration of spatial prepositions 4.1 Introduction One aspect of the lexicon, as Hamawand (2011:42) explains, is the tendency of linguistic items, lexical or grammatical, to form a set of relations. The process of grouping together lexical items into a cognitive domain is called configuration. The lexicon of a language is not merely a list of independent items. Rather, it is organized into areas based on meaning. Spatial prepositions tend to group on the basis of the meanings they express and the facets they belong to.
4.2 Theories of lexical relationships In the literature, there are two major theories of lexical relationships. One is the Semantic Field theory; the other is the Cognitive Domain theory.
4.2.1 The Semantic Field theory The theory of semantic-field developed by Trier in (1931) is also called lexical field. According to this theory, the vocabulary of a language forms clusters of interrelated meanings rather than lists of independent items. The vocabulary is not just a listing of individual items. It is rather organized into fields within which lexical items interconnect and define each other in various ways (ibid). For instance, the semantic field of theft is divided up into rob, steal, pilfer, filch...etc. Croft and Cruse (2004:10) assert that this theory groups together words that are associated in meaning. The exact meaning of any lexical item can be understood only by placing it in relation to the others or they can be defined relative to the other words in the same field.
60
Bussmann (1996:674) states that according to this theory, a word always establishes a structured set of elements together with other semantically related words that have a shared influence on each other. It does not exist in isolation in the mind of the speaker or the hearer. Trier’s lexical field theory is based on the following set of principles. First, the meaning of a specific word is dependent upon the meaning of the rest of the words in the same lexical field. Second, an individual lexical field is formed like a mosaic with no gaps; the entire set of all lexical fields of a language displays a self-contained picture of reality. Third, if a single word undergoes a change in meaning, then the total structure of the lexical field changes. The Semantic Field theory has often been used by linguists to describe groups of related lexical items, illustrate language change and show contrastive analysis of different languages. However, Lehrer (1974) and Lyons (1977), as cited in (Hamawand 2009:92), mention some weak points of this theory. One weakness is that this theory does not sharply distinguish words from one another within the lexical fields. Thus, the position of a certain word is not known to which lexical field it belongs. Not all words are flexible to semantic field analysis, which means not all aspects of experience precisely divide up into semantic fields. Another weakness is that this theory concentrates on the paradigmatic relations only. It does not take the syntagmatic information into consideration. A further weakness is that the role of context is not recognized in assigning a lexical item to a field. Furthermore, it does not present any criterion for concluding whether or not a particular word belongs to a lexical field. Language is not about analyzing formulas of internal structure with no role for the speaker. As a reaction to the semantic field theory, the Cognitive Domain theory which is suggested by Langacker (1987, 1991) emerges.
61
4.2.2 The Cognitive Domain theory The theory of Cognitive Domain was developed by Langacker in the 1980s. It is based on the assumption that meaning is encyclopedic in that it comprises a large range of knowledge, often in great detail. Lexical concepts cannot be comprehended independently of larger knowledge structures. Langacker assumes that domains are mental knowledge structures, which have preconditions for the understanding of lexical concepts. The semantic value of a word is specified with respect to a domain, and the conceptual content evoked by the expression is referred to by Langacker (1987:154) as a Cognitive Domain i.e. every concept is characterized relative to an appropriate domain. That is to say, the meaning of a linguistic expression can be best described with reference to the domain to which it belongs. Hamawand (2011:46) defines domain as the knowledge background in which the meanings of lexical items can be properly described. A domain provides background information against which lexical items can be understood and used in language. To clarify the notion of domain, for instance, the meaning of the lexical items mother, uncle, cousin, niece, etc., are best explained against the domain of kinship which the speaker uses as the background knowledge for their description. Domain is a coherent area of conceptualization, as Hamawand (2009:21) argues, which provides the basis for the characterization of a lexical expression. A domain has a number of facets, in which understanding one of them facilitates understanding the meaning of another. A facet is a portion of a domain which is associated with a particular experience. That is, concepts do not exist in isolation, but they are linked in a cognitive domain and the particular facets within the domain. In the above example, the word father constitutes a facet of the domain kinship.
62
Concepts can be structured in terms of several domains, as Langacker (cited in Evans and Green; 2006) argues, the range of domains that structure a single lexical concept is called the domain matrix of that concept. Domains derive from human embodied experience (pre-conceptual experience), referring to both sensory-perceptual experience and subjective experience (Langacker; 1987: 148). Some prime examples of basic domains are space, time, pitch, temperature, emotion, taste, and smell, etc. Hamawand (2007:90-91) mentions advantages of domains. One advantage is that a domain helps to demonstrate differences between lexical items and not just how they are related to each other. A domain combines lexical items under a common concept, rather than listing them in alphabetical order as dictionaries do. Another advantage is that a domain is a sphere of knowledge within which a number of lexical items can be located, and it is a mechanism for comparing one item with another. A further advantage is that a domain is a mechanism for defining the meanings of the lexical items. It includes information about the specific meanings or the distinctive uses of lexical items.
4.3 Domains of spatial prepositions Prepositions are classified into three main domains: axis, orientation and location. A domain is a knowledge structure in terms of which the exact role of a preposition can be defined. Within domains, the prepositions occupy different facets. A facet is a definable part in a domain which represents particular concept (Hamawand: 2011:83).
4.3.1 The domain of Axis The domain of axis is a sphere of knowledge pointing to the arrangement of things on a vertical or a horizontal level. The domain of axis is subdivided into two sub-domains: vertical axis, and horizontal axis. A vertical axis refers to the straight arrangement of things, that is, their position on an upright line. A
63
horizontal Axis refers to the leaner arrangement of things, that is, their position on a baseline or in comparison to one another. In terms of the sub-domain of vertical axis, it includes two facets: height and lowness. Height is realized by the prepositions above, and over. Lowness is realized by the prepositions under, underneath, and below. The sub-domain of horizontal axis incudes two facets: motion and stability. Motion is realized by the prepositions past, through and across. Stability is realized by the preposition against.
4.3.1.1 The sub-domain of vertical axis The sub-domain of vertical axis includes two major facets: the facet of height, and the facet of lowness.
4.3.1.1.1 The facet of height: above, over The facet of height refers to being a large distance away from top to bottom or a long way above the ground/the surface of something. The prepositions that represent this facet are above and over. According to Tyler and Evans (2003:111), above and over evoke high position on the vertical axis. There is similarity between above and over. In The plane is flying above the city and She held an umbrella over her head. One can see the two prepositions above and over describe high positions. On the other hand, above and over differ in the way they evoke their axis. The conceptualization between these two prepositions will be explained further more in chapter four. 1. Above Prototypically, the preposition above expresses the meaning of higher position. It means situated directly up and separated from. Above denotes a spatial relation between trajector and landmark in which the trajector is located in an unknown location physically higher than the landmark. Hence, the trajector is not within potential reach of the landmark. In The sun moved further above the horizon, above evokes height on the vertical axis. The sun is
64
construed as being in a higher position than the horizon; the trajector represented by the sun is located in indefinitely large region. 2. Over The preposition over, prototypically, denotes above/higher position referring above or higher than something without touching and sometimes so that one thing covers the other. Over involves a spatial relation in which the trajector is located higher than the landmark and it is represented as being in the same vertical axis as the landmark. Hence, the trajector is within potential contact of landmark. In The bee is hovering over the flower, over evokes height on the vertical axis. The trajector is construed as being higher than the landmark but within potential contact of the landmark i.e. bees typically land on flowers in order to gather nectar.
4.3.1.1.2 The facet of lowness: under, underneath, below The facet of lowness refers to not measuring much from the base to the top, or close to the ground /the surface of something or the bottom of something. The prepositions that represent this facet are under, underneath, and below. According to Tyler and Evans (2003:107) and Dirven(1993) (as stated in Taylor; 1995:97), under and below evoke low position on the vertical axis. There is similarity among the prepositions under, underneath, and below. In There is water under the bridge, They found a bomb underneath the car, and The bag is below the seat. One can see the prepositions describe low positions. However, they differ in the way they evoke their axis. The conceptualization between these prepositions will be explained further more in chapter four. 1. Under Prototypically, the preposition under expresses the meaning of lower position; referring to below something or the surface or lower than something else, often so that one covers the other. Under denotes a spatial relation between
65
trajector and landmark in which the trajector is lower than and yet proximal to the landmark. In There is a ball under the bed, under evokes lowness on the vertical axis. The ball is construed as being in a lower position than the bed and proximal to it. 2. Underneath Prototypically, the preposition underneath, gives the meaning of on the lower surface of something, directly under another object or covered by it. Lindstromberg (2010:156) states, underneath tends to mean completely under, completely covered. It involves a spatial relation in which the trajector and the landmark are in contact. In The key is underneath the vase, underneath evokes lowness on the vertical axis. The sentence means that the key is located below the vase in a way that the vase completely covers the key i.e. the key cannot be seen. 3. Below The preposition below, prototypically, denotes low position. It carries the sense of in or to a lower place or position (than). Below denotes a spatial relation between trajector and landmark in which the trajector is lower than and distal with respect to the landmark. Hence, there is no possibility of contact between trajector and landmark. In The kitchen is below the bedroom, below evokes lowness on the vertical axis, whereby the kitchen as the trajector is in a lower position than the bedroom as the landmark, i.e. the bedroom is on the second floor.
4.3.1.2 The sub-domain of horizontal axis The sub-domain of horizontal axis includes two major facets: the facet of motion, and the facets of stability.
66
4.3.1.2.1 The facet of motion: past, through, across The dictionary meaning of motion is an act of changing position; moving from one place to another or of moving something from one place to another. The prepositions that represent this facet are past, through and across. These prepositions evoke motion on the horizontal level; past refers to, as Lindstromberg (2010:134,147) mentions, the path a person at x would follow to reach the landmark i.e. movement of the trajector to reach the landmark. Through evokes the notion of path and gives the meaning of in one side and out of the other i.e. the trajector moves from one side of the landmark and out of the other side of the landmark (ibid:126). Across gives the meaning of from one side to the opposite side (ibid:124). 1. Past Prototypically, the preposition past signifies the sense of in or to a position that is further/beyond a particular point, place. Past evokes motion on the horizontal axis. It can be used to describe more or less a straight path which comes near to a landmark and then continues. In The shop is past the zoo, past evokes motion on the horizontal axis. The sentence means that the shop is located a little further than where the zoo is i.e. one has to walk beyond the zoo in order to get to the shop. 2. Through The preposition through, prototypically, expresses the sense of one side to another referring to into, then out of the other end or side. Through evokes motion on the horizontal axis. Tyler and Evans (2003:217-218) assert that, through designates a spatial relation in which the trajector is held to occupy a contiguous series of spatial points with respect to the landmark. The landmark has two locations on either side (the entrance point and the exit point respectively). In Sarah drove the car through the tunnel, through evokes motion on the horizontal axis. The trajector held series of points with respect to the
67
landmark. The sentence means that the car as the trajector went from one side of the tunnel (one location of the landmark: the entrance) out of the other side of the tunnel (the second location of the landmark: the exit point). 3. Across Prototypically, the preposition across refers to sides; expressing the meaning of from one side of something to the other with clear limits; such as area of land, a road or river. Across involves a spatial relation between the trajector and the landmark in which they face each other (Lindstormberg; 2010: 98). Across evokes motion on the horizontal plane. In We walked across the field, across evokes motion on the horizontal axis. The sentence means that the trajector (we) moved from one side of the landmark (the field) to the other side.
4.3.1.2.2 The facet of stability: against Dictionaries define stability as the condition of being steady and not changing. The preposition that represents this facet is against. (ibid:184) state that, against concern location on the horizontal plane. This preposition evokes stability on the horizontal level. Against Prototypically, the preposition against conveys the meaning of touching. It refers to next to, touching, hit, rubs a surface or being supported by (something). Against involves a spatial relation in which there is contact between trajector and landmark as well as force in a horizontal plane (ibid: 184). Against evokes stability on the horizontal plane. In The chair is against the door, against describes stability. The sentence means that the chair as the trajector is in forceful contact with the door as the landmark whereby the chair prevents the door from moving i.e. the door cannot be opened.
68
4.3.2 The domain of Orientation The domain of orientation is a field of knowledge describing the act of arrangement, aim or direction. O’dowd asserts that orientation has been defined in various ways and all of them invoke the notions of space, of reference points, and of a subject’s relation to these points (1998:55). This domain has two facets. First, the facet of destination/goal which is realized by the prepositions to and into. Second, the facet of position which is realized by the prepositions before, behind, beyond and in front of.
4.3.2.1 The facet of destination/goal: to, into The facet of destination/goal refers to an aim or purpose, a place to which somebody or something is going. The prepositions that represent this facet are to and
into.
Tyler
and
Evans
(2003:149)
mention
that,
to
shows
direction/destination in that it designates the landmark as a destination. Into mediates a spatial relation in which the trajector is oriented with respect to landmark (ibid:199). There is similarity between to and into. In Zara ran to the hills and Zara ran into the room. One can see the two prepositions to and into describe destination/goal. In the sentences, both the hills and the room as landmarks act as a destination/goal. On the other hand, to and into differ in the way they evoke their orientation. The conceptualization between these two prepositions will be explained further more in chapter four. 1. To Prototypically, to as a preposition expresses the meaning of in the direction of or the destination of something or someone is. It means showing direction/destination (Saint-Dizier; 2006:13). According to Tyler and Evans (2003:149), to designate a relation in which the trajector is oriented with respect to the landmark; the focus is on the landmark i.e. the landmark is a goal. In He
69
threw the ball to Sarah, to evokes the facet of destination/goal. The sentence means that Sarah as the landmark was seen as a destination/goal to reach. 2. Into Prototypically, the preposition into expresses the meaning of towards the inside or middle of something and about to be contained, surrounded or closed off by something. It conveys the sense of inside. According to Tyler and Evans (2003:199), into mediates a spatial relation in which the trajector is oriented towards the landmark. In Sarah jumped into the water, into evokes the facet of destination/goal. The sentence means that Sarah as the trajector was first outside the water as the landmark and then went into the water; the water was a destination/goal. Into denotes deeper penetration i.e. she might have jumped from a high place.
4.3.2.2 The facet of position: before, behind, beyond, in front of The facet of position refers to a place where somebody or something is located (especially in relation to other objects and places). The prepositions that represent this facet are before, behind, beyond and in front of. According to Radden and Dirven (2007:316), before and in front of evoke orientation. There is similarity between before and in front of. In The flag is in front of us and The bus stop is just before the school. One can see the two prepositions before and in front of describe position of the landmark with respect to the trajector i.e. orientation of the landmark with respect to the trajector. On the other hand, before and in front of differ in the way they evoke their orientation. The conceptualization between these two prepositions will be explained further more in chapter four. Moreover, the two prepositions behind and beyond evoke orientation. There is similarity between them. In The flag is behind us and The bus stop is beyond the school. One can see the two prepositions behind and beyond describe position of the landmark with respect to the trajector i.e. orientation of the landmark with respect to the trajector. On the other hand,
70
behind and beyond differ in the way they evoke their orientation. The conceptualization between these two prepositions will be explained further more in chapter four. 1. Before The preposition before expresses the meaning of place or in front of. It refers to the place in front of someone or something. Before designates a spatial relation in which the landmark is oriented towards the trajector i.e. the trajector is located at the front of the landmark, Before denotes distance. The position of the trajector is located with respect to the landmark. Hence, the facet of position is evoked. In He stood before the king, before evokes position. The sentence means that he as the trajector stood in a position in front of the king as the landmark, before conveys the sense that he stood in distance from the king. 2. Behind The preposition behind expresses the meaning of at the back of. It refers to the place at the back of someone or something. Behind designates a spatial relation in which the trajector is understood to be located such that the front of the landmark is directed away from the trajector i.e. the trajector is located at the back of the landmark. The position of the trajector is located with respect to the landmark. Hence, the facet of position is evoked. In He stood behind the door, behind evokes position. The sentence means that he as the trajector stood in a position at the back of the door as the landmark, behind conveys the sense that he stood at the back of the door. 3. Beyond The preposition beyond expresses the meaning of further away. It refers to further away in distance than something. Beyond designates a spatial relation in which the trajector is understood to be located such that the landmark is directed away from the trajector i.e. the trajector is located further away from the
71
landmark. The position of the trajector is located with respect to the landmark. Hence, the facet of position is evoked. In The farm is beyond the hill, beyond evokes position. The sentence means that the farm as the trajector is in a position further away from the hill as the landmark, beyond conveys the sense that the farm is located further away in distance than the hill. 4. In front of Prototypically, the preposition in front of expresses the meaning of near or closeness. According to Tyler and Evans (2003: 158), in front of designates a spatial relation in which the landmark is oriented towards the trajector i.e. the trajector is located at the front of the landmark. In front of denotes the sense of being close to the front part of something whereby it is reachable i.e. closeness. The facet of position is evoked whereby the position of the trajector is in close distance from the landmark. In The glass was in front of her, in front of evokes position. The sentence means that the glass as the trajector was in a position in front of/ near her as the landmark i.e. the glass was at reach.
4.3.3 The domain of Location The domain of location is a field of knowledge describing the act of finding the exact position of something/somebody. This domain has four facets. First, the facet of containment which is realized by the preposition in. Second, the facet of surface which is realized by the prepositions on and onto. Third, the facet of proximity which is realized by the prepositions by and near. Forth, the facet of point which is realized by the preposition at.
4.3.3.1 The facet of containment: in The facet of containment refers to the inside or towards the inside of a container, place or area, or surrounded or closed off by something. The preposition that represents this facet is in. Prototypically, in conveys the sense of containment. According to Tyler and Evans (2003:183), in constitutes a spatial
72
relation in which a trajector is located within a landmark i.e. the trajector is contained by the landmark. Hence, in evokes the facet of containment. In The flower in the vase, in evokes containment. The sentence means that the trajector (the flower) is located within the landmark (the vase). The vase is construed as a container for the flower.
4.3.3.2 The facet of surface: on, onto The facet of surface refers to the outer or top part or layer of something. The prepositions that represent this facet are on and onto. According to, Dirven (1993) (as cited in Taylor; 1995: 96), the prepositions on and onto denote a location at a two- or three- dimensional line or surface. They evoke the facet of surface and convey the sense of contact of the trajector with the landmark. There is similarity between on and onto. In The books are on the table and I slipped as I stepped onto the platform. One can see the two prepositions on and onto describe surface. In the sentences, the trajector (The books, I) are in contact with the surface of the landmarks (the table, the platform). On the other hand, on and onto differ in the way they evoke their location. The conceptualization between these two prepositions will be explained further more in chapter four. 1. On The preposition on, prototypically, denotes location (physical). It is used to show that something is physically located above something else and touching it. On indicates the sense of above. Lindstromberge (2010:51) and Lee (2001:21) state that, on involves a spatial relation in which the trajector is in contact with the landmark that is a supporting surface. Accordingly two entities are in physical contact with each other, with one positioned above the other and supported by it i.e. the surface of the two entities is in contact. Hence, on evokes the facet of surface and designates contact between the trajector and the landmark. In Look at all the books on your desk, on denotes location and means
73
above. The sentence means that the books are in a position above and touching the surface of the desk and that they are supported by the surface of the desk. 2. Onto Prototypically, the preposition onto, expresses the meaning of motion; it refers to a movement into or on a particular place/surface. Onto evokes the facet of surface. Radden and Dirven (2007:312) and Lindstromberg (2010:54) assert that, onto mediates a spatial relation in which the trajector is in contact with the landmark; it is especially apt where the trajector makes forceful contact with the landmark. In Sarah put the books onto the highest shelf, onto evokes the facet of surface. The sentence means that Sarah placed the books as the trajector on the shelf as the landmark; the books are in contact with the surface of the shelf. Onto denotes forceful contact i.e. Sarah could not place the books on the shelf easily; she might have used a ladder or a chair to stand on.
4.3.3.3 The facet of proximity: by, near The facet of proximity refers to the state of being near somebody or something in distance or time. The prepositions that represent this facet are by and near. According to Lindstromberg (ibid: 145), Radden and Dirven (2007:311), near signals proximity i.e. short distance away. Lindstromberg (ibid:148) states that, the basic spatial sense of by is near which denotes not being on or in or at the landmark but approximate to it. They evoke the facet of proximity and convey the sense of the trajector and the landmark are close to each other. There is similarity between by and near. In The hotel is near the airport, and She is standing by the tree. One can see the two prepositions by and near describe proximity. In the sentences, the trajectors (The hotel, She) are close to the landmarks (the airport, the tree). On the other hand, by and near differ in the way they evoke their location. The conceptualization between these two prepositions will be explained further more in chapter four.
74
1. By The preposition by, prototypically, expresses the sense of a close distance away. By signals proximity i.e. it entails possibility of connection of trajector and landmark. By mediates a spatial relation in which the trajector and the landmark are close to each other. The lack of contact between the trajector and the landmark is less definite with by. In The box is by the wall, by evokes the facet of proximity. It gives information regarding the closeness of trajector and landmark. The sentence means that the box as the trajector is close to the door as the landmark such that it might come in contact with it. 2. Near The preposition near, prototypically, expresses the meaning of a short distance away. According to Lindstromberg (2010:183), near is a preposition of proximity. It is used to give the meaning of not far away in distance from something or somebody. Near mediates a spatial relation in which the trajector and the landmark are close to each other. However, the contact between the trajector and the landmark is less definite with near. In The chairs are near the window, near evokes the facet of proximity. The sentence means that the chairs as the trajector are a short distance away from the window as the landmark i.e. the chairs are close to the window but the possibility of contact between them is feeble.
4.3.3.4 The facet of point: at The facet of point refers to a particular place/area or time/stage reached. The preposition that represents this facet is at. Prototypically, at conveys the sense of point. At is used to show position, place of somebody or something. Taylor (1995: 96) states that, the preposition at denotes location at a zero dimension or point. At constitutes a spatial relation in which a place is thought of as a point rather than an area. Hence, at evokes the facet of point. In He is at school, at evokes point. The landmark school is thought of as a point rather than an area or
75
place. The sentence means that the trajector he is in the area where the landmark school is located; however, it does not say whether he is inside/outside the building.
76
Chapter Five Conceptualization of spatial prepositions 5.1 Introduction Cognitive linguists study language for its own sake. They try to describe its structure, its systematicity, and its functions.
The reason why they study
language as Evans and Green (2006:5) state, stems from the assumption that language reflects patterns of thought i.e. language offers a window into human’s cognitive system and presents insights into the nature, structure and organization of thoughts. Hence, to study language from this perspective is to study patterns of conceptualization.
5.2 Theories of interpretation In the literature, two main theories of interpretation exist. One is the reference theory. The other is construal theory.
5.2.1 The Reference theory The reference theory of meaning, as Hamawand (2009:124) mentions, is an approach to language in which the meaning of an expression equals its reference. This theory regards meaning objective in nature i.e. the meaning of an expression is inherent in the relationship between the expression and aspects of an objective world. Hamawand adds that, language is seen as consistent with the external world in an almost literal sense. This theory has given rise to a more complex version, called Truth-Conditional theory or Formal Semantics, which attempts to reduce meaning to questions of truth and falsehood. The meaning of an utterance is reducible to its truth condition (ibid). Although this theory has been adopted by many linguists, it does not offer a complete account of utterance meaning. Taylor (2002:188-9) and others have
77
stressed limitations of this theory. One limitation is that the theory is applicable only to expressions which designate concrete entities. There is more to the meaning of an utterance than the relationship between the utterance and its referents. No speaker can point to entities named by words like love, peace, kind, for instance. Another limitation, cited in Bussmann (1996: 498), is that this theory fails to account for expressions which refer to the same thing, which assumes to be synonymous. According to this theory the words wound and injury refer to the same thing in the world, there is no difference in meaning between them. A further limitation, cited in Goddard (1998: 5), is that the property of making reference does not belong to the utterances themselves, but rather to their uses on specific occasions. Words like I, now, this and here can refer to many things depending on context. As a reaction to this fallacy, Cognitive Linguistics, which assumes that lexical items are not randomly interchangeable, posits the construal theory.
5.2.2 The Construal theory In Langacker’s words (cited in Croft and Cruse; 2004:40), semantics is conceptualization. This hypothesis opposes the view that semantics is purely truth-conditional. Conceptualization, as Evans (2007:38) asserts, is the process of meaning construction to which language contributes. The meaning of an utterance is described with reference to the way it is conceptualized. According to Hamawand (2011:49), conceptualization “refers to the mental act of construing a conceived situation in alternate ways”. Hamawand (2009:125-126) proposes two stages where the production of an utterance undergoes. The stages operate simultaneously. The first stage pertains to conceptualization, where the speaker determines how to frame an idea in language. At this conceptual stage, the speaker constructs a concept in the mind about a particular situation. The second stage has to do with formulation, where the speaker converts the message into words, phrases and clauses. At this
78
linguistic stage, the speaker chooses the lexical resources available in language to stand for his/her communicative aim. An utterance’s meaning is both the conceptual content it evokes, and how that content is construed. Construal means the speaker’s ability to conceptualize a situation in alternate ways and use different linguistic expressions to represent them in discourse. Two linguistic expressions may have the same conceptual content, yet contrast semantically (Hamawand; 2011: 49). The semantic contrast between them is credited to the imposition of alternate construals on their content. Clausner and Croft (1999:3) define construal as “the process by which a person’s experience in the world is conceived in a variety of ways”. The construal theory is concerned with how human beings use language to represent or construct reality. The meaning of an utterance embodies the way the speaker describes a situation. Tabakowska, et al. (2010:19) state that “[t]he notion of construal, is needed to mark the cognitive operation transforming a conceptual scene into a linguistic description of it”. This theory, in contrast to reference theory, considers meaning as subjective in nature. Meanings tend, as Traugott (1986: 540) (cited in Auwera, Johan, Van Der;1998) claims, to refer less to objective situations and more to subjective ones; less to the described situation and more to the discourse situation. Underlying the construal theory is the idea that linguistic expressions do not refer directly to the world. Somewhat, they refer to entities in a mental space. The mental space can be both objective, referring to things that exist in the world, and non-objective, referring to things that do not associate with things in the real world. For instance, the utterances wound and injury are truthconditionally equivalent, i.e. they describe the same objective situation, but they have different meanings. The utterances differ pertaining to how they construe the described situation. Construal then deals with how a situation is conceptualized and how it is linguistically encoded as Hamawand (2016:186) asserts. Consider the following example given by Langacker (2008:204), He
79
cried to annoy his mother and To annoy his mother he cried. Both sentences share similar wording, but they entail different way of construing the same content. The first sentence expresses the purpose of an action. It indicates that the crying is intended to annoy the mother, whereas the second sentence specifies the action. Langacker (1990a:61) affirms that speaking always implies a choice: A speaker who accurately observes the spatial distribution of certain stars can describe them in many distinct fashions: as a constellation, as a cluster of stars, as a spec of light in the sky, etc. Such expressions are semantically distinct; they reflect the speaker’s alternate construals of the scene, each compatible with its objective given properties (cited in Geeraerts and Cuyckens; 2007:49).
Hamawand (2009:129) mentions that a great advantage of construal is that it captures differences between apparently similar words.
5.3 Semantic distinctions within domains Spatial prepositions belonging to the same domain do not have the same meaning. The difference in meaning is not only a question of content, but also a matter of construal. Construal is the cognitive ability to conceptualize a situation in different ways and choose the proper spatial preposition to represent them in discourse. Below are details of the semantic distinctions within the domains.
5.3.1 Semantic distinctions within the domain of Axis The domain of axis is a field of knowledge dealing with the arrangement of things on a vertical or a horizontal level. The spatial prepositions belonging to the domain of axis can form pairs but with a difference in meaning. As mentioned earlier, the domain of axis has two sub-domains: the subdomain of vertical axis that contains five prepositions, and they are classified within two facets: the facet of height which is represented by above and over, and the facet
80
of lowness which is represented by under, underneath, and below. The second subdomain is horizontal axis that contains four prepositions, and they are classified into two facets: the facet of movement which is represented by past, through, and across and the facet of stability which is represented by against. In spite of sharing the same domain, the prepositions do not mean the same. In each case, the speaker imposes a different construal on the content, and so selects a different spatial preposition. In Cognitive Semantics, a specific situation can be construed in different ways, and that altered ways of encoding a situation constitutes different conceptualizations. Below are the semantic distinctions within the domain of axis.
5.3.1.1 Direct vs. covered: under vs. underneath The spatial prepositions under and underneath belong to the domain of axis, and they evoke the same facet, however they are different in meaning. Like the preposition under, underneath evokes the facet of lowness in the vertical axis; however, they represent different construals. Under involves construal of the trajector being lower than and yet proximal to the landmark. By contrast, underneath involves construal of trajector in contact with landmark, underneath emphasizes that something completely covers, touches, or hides something. For example: (1) a. The headphone is under the bag. b. The headphone is underneath the bag. In the above examples, the prepositions under and underneath in (1 a, b) represent different construals. Under is used when something is directly under another, while underneath is used when something is covered by something else. In sentence (1a), the preposition under describes a scene in which the trajector (the headphone) is directly under the landmark (the bag). In sentence (1b), the preposition underneath describes a scene in which the trajector (the headphone) is covered by the landmark (the bag). According to Lindstromberg
81
(2010:156), underneath gives the meaning of completely under, completely covered. Hence, with under the landmark covers the trajector but not completely, while with underneath the trajector cannot be seen as it is entirely covered by the landmark.
5.3.1.2 Direct vs. indirect: under vs. below The spatial prepositions under and below belong to the domain of axis, and they evoke the same facet, however they are different in meaning. Under indicates a direct vertical relationship of objects, when something is directly under another. Below indicates merely being on a lower level, the object is not directly under another and may not be vertically lined up. Like the preposition under, below evokes the facet of lowness in the vertical axis; however, they represent different construals. Under involves construal of the trajector being directly under the landmark. By contrast, below involves construal of the trajector being not directly under the landmark. For example: (2) a. The lifejacket is under the seat. b. The lifejacket is below the seat. In the above examples, the prepositions under and below in (2 a, b) represent different construals. In sentence (2a), the preposition under describes a scene in which the trajector (the lifejacket) is taken to be in a lower position and directly under the landmark (the seat). In sentence (2b), the preposition below describes a scene in which the trajector (the lifejacket) is taken to be in a lower position but not necessarily directly under the landmark (the seat). Hence, under denotes being lower than but proximal i.e. there is a possibility of contact, and describes the trajector and the landmark as being vertically lined up, while below denotes being lower than but distal with respect to the landmark i.e. the possibility of contact is precluded, and describes the trajector and the landmark as not being vertically lined up.
82
5.3.1.3 Non-contact vs. contact: above vs. over The spatial prepositions above and over belong to the domain of axis, and they evoke the same facet, however they are different in meaning. Above expresses the meaning of being situated directly up and separated from. Over conveys the meaning of above or higher than something without touching and sometimes so that one thing covers the other. Over does not mean there is definitely no contact; but suggests the two entities to be relatively close. Like the preposition above, over evokes the facet of height in the vertical axis; however, they represent different construals. Above involves construal of the trajector being located in an unknown location physically higher than the landmark i.e. the trajector is not within potential reach of the landmark. By contrast, over involves construal of the trajector being located higher than the landmark and it is represented as being in the same vertical axis as the landmark. Hence, the trajector is within potential contact of the landmark. For example: (3) a. Lisa hung the sweater above the chair. b. Lisa hung the sweater over the chair. In the above examples, the prepositions above and over in (3 a, b) represent different construals. In sentence (3a), the preposition above describes a scene in which the trajector (the sweater) is taken to be in a higher position and separated from the landmark (the chair) i.e. the sweater is not within potential reach of the chair. In sentence (3b), the preposition over describes a scene in which the trajector (the sweater) is taken to be in a higher position and in the same vertical axis as the landmark (the chair) i.e. the sweater is within potential reach of the chair. Over does not mean there is definitely no contact; but it suggests that the two entities are relatively close.
83
5.3.1.4 On vs. in: across vs. through The spatial prepositions across and through belong to the domain of axis, they evoke same facet, but they are not alike in meaning. Both across and through convey the sense of motion, but with a difference in meaning. Across gives the sense of on, hence, it means movement on a surface from one side of it to the other. Through gives the sense of in, hence, it suggests movement in three-dimensional space, from one side to another. The two prepositions evoke different construals. Across involves the construal of the landmark in which is described as a supporting surface (Lee; 2001:26). Through involves the construal of the trajector moving into and out of the landmark. For example: (4) a. They walked across the grass. b. They walked through the grass. In the above examples, the prepositions across and through in (4a, b) represent different construals. In sentence (4a), the trajector (they) walk on the landmark (the grass); the landmark is conceptualized as a supporting surface. In sentence (4b), the trajector (they) move into and out of the landmark (the grass); the landmark is conceptualized as a three-dimensional space; suggesting that in (4b) the grass is in knee-high level.
5.3.2 Semantic distinctions within the domain of Orientation The domain of orientation is a field of knowledge dealing with the arrangement or the direction of things or people (CALD; 2008).This domain has two facets: the facet of destination/goal which is represented by the prepositions to and into, and the facet of position which is represented by the prepositions before, behind, beyond and in front of. The speaker imposes a different construal on the content, and so chooses a different preposition. Below are the semantic distinctions within the domain of orientation.
84
5.3.2.1 Sequence vs. closeness: before vs. in front of Both prepositions before and in front of indicate the domain of orientation, and belong to the same facet, but they are different in meaning. Before indicates position in a list or order. In front of indicates closeness to the front part of something. Although they evoke the facet of position, they represent different construals. Before involves the construal of the landmark being oriented towards the trajector i.e. the trajector is located before the landmark. In front of involves construal of the landmark being oriented towards the trajector, but it denotes the sense of being close to the front part of something whereby it is reachable. For example: (6) a. The car parked before the gate. b. The car parked in front of the gate. In examples (6a, b), the prepositions before and in front of convey different construals. In (6a), before denotes sequence, the trajector (the car) is placed before the landmark (the gate). In (6b), in front of denotes closeness, the trajector (the car) is placed close to the front part of the landmark (the gate) i.e. the car is parked close to the gate in a way one does not have to walk a lot to reach the car.
5.3.2.2 At the back of vs. further away: behind vs. beyond Both prepositions behind and beyond indicate the domain of orientation, and belong to the same facet, but they are different in meaning. Behind indicates position at the back of something or someone. Beyond indicates further away in distance than something. Although they evoke the facet of position, they represent different construals. Behind involves the construal of the landmark being directed away from the trajector i.e. the trajector is located at the back of the landmark. Lindstromberg (2010:104) assert that behind is most apt when the trajector and the landmark are relatively near each other. Beyond involves
85
construal of the landmark being directed further away in distance from the trajector i.e. the trajector is located further away from the landmark; there is a considerable distance between the trajector and the landmark. For example: (7) a. There is a bicycle behind the tree. b. There is a bicycle beyond the tree. In examples (7a, b), the prepositions behind and beyond convey different construals. In (7a), behind denotes at the back of, the trajector (a bicycle) is located at the back of the landmark (the tree). The bicycle is relatively close to the tree and it is positioned at the back of the tree. In (7b), beyond denotes further away, the trajector (a bicycle) is placed in distance from the landmark (the tree) i.e. the bicycle is positioned further away in distance from the tree in a way one has to walk a lot to reach the bicycle.
5.3.3 Semantic distinctions within the domain of Location The domain of location deals with finding the precise location of someone/somebody. This domain has four facets: the facet of containment which is represented by the preposition in, the facet of surface which is represented by the prepositions on and onto, the facet of proximity which is represented by the prepositions by and near, and the facet of point which is represented by the preposition at. The speaker draws a different construal on the content, and so chooses a different preposition. Below are the semantic distinctions within the domain of location.
5.3.3.1 Containment vs. point: in vs. at Although the prepositions in and at indicate the domain of location, they belong to different facets, and so they are not alike in meaning. In signifies the facet of containment, while at signifies the facet of point. The two prepositions represent different construals. In focuses on containment, and means inside or towards the inside of a container, place or area, or surrounded or closed off by
86
something. By contrast, at focuses on a location at a zero dimension, and constitutes a spatial relation in which a place is thought of as a point rather than an area. At involves construal of both trajector and landmark as geometric points, while in involves construal of trajector within landmark. (7) a. Sarah is at the library. b. Sarah is in the library. The speaker in example (7a) tells us where Sarah is. Sarah might be inside the building or standing outside in the area/ point where the library is located. The speaker conceptualizes the library as a geometric point in space. In example (7b), the trajector (Sarah) is within the landmark (the library) i.e. the exact position of the trajector is known. There is not possibility of Sarah being in another place. (8) a. Dara was at the game. b. Dara was in the game. In the above examples (8a, b), the prepositions at and in convey different construals. In (8a), the sentence expresses a locative relationship between trajector and landmark. The sentence is conceptualized with the trajector (Dara) watching the landmark (the game) i.e. Dara is one of the spectators. In (8b), the game is construed as a container which characterizes the landmark as an event rather than a place. The sentence is conceptualized with the trajector being an active participant in the landmark i.e. Dara was one of the game players.
5.3.3.2 Containment vs. location: in vs. on Both in and on signify the domain of location, but they evoke distinct facets of it and so they are not alike in meaning. In expresses the sense of containment, whereas on expresses the sense of location (surface). Consequently, they signify different construals. The preposition in involves construal of the trajector within
87
the landmark i.e. the landmark is contained by the trajector. The preposition on involves construal of the trajector in contact with the landmark. For example in: (9) a. He is in the train. b. He is on the train. The two prepositions represent different construals. In the example (9a), the landmark (the train) is construed as a container, while in (9b), it is construed as a supporting surface. In (9a), the train is conceptualized as a stationary analogous to a house, a garage or any other container. The speaker conceptualizes all the details and parts of the train including its passengers. In (9b), the preposition on is more abstract. The speaker conceptualizes the train merely as a transport vehicle, as a mean or a medium.
5.3.3.3 Location (physical) vs. movement: on vs. onto Both prepositions on and onto indicate the domain of location, and belong to the same facet, but they are different in meaning. On expresses the sense of location (physical) and evokes the facet of surface. Onto expresses the sense of a movement onto the top of something. Like the preposition on, onto evokes the facet of surface, however, they represent different construals. On involves construal of trajector in contact with landmark, the contact between them is normal. By contrast, onto involves construal of forceful contact between the trajector and the landmark. For example: (10) a. He put the book on the shelf. b. He put the book onto the shelf. In the above examples, the prepositions on and onto in (10 a, b) represent different construals. In sentence (10a), the preposition on designates a scene in which the landmark (the shelf) is taken to be in a higher location and within reach. According to Radden and Dirven (2007:312), on suggests a neutral
88
situation of contact. In sentence (10b), the preposition onto designates a scene in which the landmark (the shelf) is taken to be less easy to reach and possibly even requiring some effort. According to Radden and Dirven (ibid), onto is a compound preposition, in which to expresses motion to a goal and on the resulting state of contact. In (10a) the trajector (he) easily placed the book on the landmark (the shelf), while in (10b) the trajector (he) has made some efforts to put the book on the shelf; he might have used a chair to stand on so as to place the book on the landmark (the shelf).
5.3.3.4 A short distance away vs. a close distance away: near vs. by Both prepositions near and by belong to the domain of location, and emphasize the facet of proximity, but they are different in their meaning. Near expresses the sense of a short distance away, while by expresses the sense of a close distance away, so they represent different constuals. Near involves construal of the trajector and the landmark being away from each other. The contact between the trajector and the landmark is less definite with near. By involves construal of the trajector and the landmark being close to each other. The contact between the trajector and the landmark is more definite with by. Hence, near describes the proximity between the trajector and the landmark and denotes less definite contact between the trajector and the landmark. But by describes proximity of the trajector and the landmark and denotes the possibility of contact between the trajector and the landmark i.e. by is closer in contact between the trajector and the landmark than near. (12) a. The ball is near the net. b. The ball is by the net. In the above examples, the prepositions near and by represent different construals. In sentence (12a), the preposition near designates a scene in which the trajector (the ball) is taken to be a short distance away from the landmark (the net). According to Lindstromberg (2010: 145), Radden and Dirven
89
(2007:311), near signals proximity i.e. short distance away. Here, it is not definite whether the ball is in/comes in contact with the net. In sentence (12b), by designates a scene in which the trajector (the ball) is taken to be a close distance away from the landmark (the net). In (12b), the trajector (the ball) is closer in distance to the landmark (the net) than in (12a) i.e. the ball and the net are closer in contact. The distance between the trajector and the landmark in (12a) is more than the distance in (12b). Hence, the contact between the trajector and the landmark is more definite in (12b).
5.4 Semantic distinctions between domains The domains of spatial prepositions interact with each other, below are the semantic distinctions between them.
5.4.1 Location vs. Axis Location describes the precise position/place of things or persons, while axis describes arrangement of things on a vertical or horizontal plane.
5.4.1.1 Point vs. touching: at vs. against The two prepositions belong to different domains; at signifies the domains of location, while against signifies the domain of axis. At evokes the facet of point. Against evokes the facet of stability. The prepositions at and against represent different construals. At involves construal of both the trajector and the landmark as geometric points. Against involves the construal of the trajector and the landmark being in contact. The preposition at means point. It shows position or place of somebody or something. In comparison, the preposition against conveys the meaning of touching, next to, hit, rub a surface or being supported by (something). (13) a. Alan threw the stone at the window. b. Alan threw the stone against the window.
90
In the above examples, the prepositions show different construals. In sentence (13a), the landmark (the window) is construed as a geometric point, or a target. The preposition at does not say anything about the force or whether the landmark was hit or not. In sentence (13b), the landmark (the window) was definitely touched, hit and with force i.e. the stone hit the window and possibly broke it. As Lindstromberg (2010: 179, 184) asserts, against indicates contact between trajector and landmark as well as force, while at indicates that the landmark is a target. That is, in (13 b) the stone hits the window; there is a contact between the trajector and the landmark, but in (13a) it is not clear whether the stone hit the window; the focus is on the fact that the window was the point/target of the action.
5.4.1.2 A close distance away vs. further than: by vs. past The two prepositions belong to different domains; by signifies the domains of location, while past signifies the domain of axis. By evokes the facet of proximity. Past evokes the facet of movement. The prepositions by and past represent different construals. By involves construal of the trajector and the landmark being close to each other. i.e. by entails possibility of connection of trajector and landmark. Past involves the construal of the trajector moving in a more or less straight path which comes near to the landmark and then continues. The preposition by conveys the meaning of a close distance away; expressing proximity between things or people. In comparison, the preposition past conveys the meaning of further than; movement in or to a position that is further than a particular point, place. (14) a. Come in by the first door to the left. b. Come in past the first door to the left. In the above examples, the prepositions show different construals. In sentence (14 a), by denotes proximity between the trajector and the landmark. The trajector has to enter the room when s/he comes close to the first door on the
91
left. By belongs to the facet of location i.e. it illustrates the location where the trajector should enter. In (14 b), past denotes further than; the trajector moves beyond the first door. The trajector has to move further from the first door and then enter. i.e. the intended place is located beyond the door. Past belongs to the facet of movement i.e. it refers to the path, the trajector s/he would follow to reach the landmark (the intended place). The trajector comes near the first door and then continues to reach the particular place.
5.4.2 Location vs. Orientation As mentioned in the previous chapter location describes the precise position/place of things or persons, while orientation is concerned with showing the aim/ direction of things or persons.
5.4.2.1 Containment vs. movement: in vs. into The two prepositions belong to different domains; in signifies the domains of location, while into signifies the domain of orientation. The prepositions in and into represent different construals. In involves construal of the trajector within the landmark. Into involves construal of the trajector moving towards the landmark. The preposition in conveys the sense of containment; inside of a place or area, or surrounded or closed off by something. In comparison, the preposition into means towards the inside or middle of something. Into evokes the facet of destination/goal. (15) a. Vania ran in the room. b. Vania ran into the room. Examples (15a,b) show different construals. According to Lindstromberg (2010:32), in focuses on the result, while into highlights the fact of movement, towards a destination. Sentence (15a) shows a scene in which the running of the trajector (Vania) is within the boundaries of the landmark (the room). The sentence shows containment of the trajector within the landmark. Sentence (15b)
92
shows a scene in which the running of the trajector (Vania) starts outside and moves into the landmark (the room), such that the trajector (Vania) comes to be located within the landmark (the room). (16) a. Alan jumped in the water. b. Alan jumped into the water. In (16a), the scene is that the trajector might be jumping in a river or a lake, but in (16b) the scene is viewed with the trajector jumping from a diving-board into the water. Lindstromberg (2010:32) asserts that into is more dynamic. Radden and Dirven (2007:313) mention that into suggests greater effort and greater penetration.
5.4.2.2 Direction/destination vs. point: to vs. at The two prepositions belong to different domains; at signifies the domain of location, while to signifies the domain of orientation. The preposition to conveys the sense of showing direction/destination; meaning in the direction of, the destination of something or someone. In comparison, the preposition at conveys the meaning of point; showing position or place of somebody or something. To involves construal of the landmark as a destination or goal, with the trajector being oriented towards the landmark. At involves construal of both the trajector and the landmark as geometric points. (17) a. He threw the ball to Sivan. b. He threw the ball at Sivan. The two prepositions in (17 a, b) have different construals. In (17a), the preposition to emphasizes that the landmark (Sivan) is a destination i.e. the trajector (he) threw her the ball in a friendly way. The trajector and landmark are team-mates and he simply passed the ball to her. Tyler and Evans (2003:149) mention that to shows direction/destination in that it designates that landmark is
93
a destination; the trajector is oriented with respect to landmark. By contrast, in (17b), the landmark (Sivan) is construed as a target i.e. the trajector (he) threw the ball in the intention of hitting the landmark (Sivan). The sentence gives the sense of hostility or aggressiveness. Lindstromberg (2010:179) states that with the preposition at the landmark is a target, while with the preposition to the landmark is a recipient.
5.4.3 Orientation vs. Axis As mentioned in the previous chapter orientation is concerned with showing the aim/ direction of things or persons, while axis describes arrangement of things on a vertical or horizontal plane.
5.4.3.1 Movement vs. facing: into vs. against The two prepositions belong to different domains; into signifies the domains of orientation, while against signifies the domain of axis. Into evokes the facet of destination/goal. Against evokes the facet of stability. The prepositions into and against represent different construals.
Into involves construal of the
trajector being oriented with respect to the landmark. Against involves the construal of trajector and landmark in contact. The preposition into means towards the inside or middle of something. In comparison, the preposition against means facing. (18) a. The boat sailed into the tide. b. The boat sailed against the tide. In (18 a, b), the prepositions show different construals. The sentence (18a) shows destination/goal, the trajector is oriented with respect to the landmark. The sentence (18b) shows stability on the horizontal plane, the trajector is in forceful contact with the landmark but yet it is stable. According to Lindstromberg (2010:184), against indicates contact between trajector and landmark as well as force in a horizontal plane. In (18a), into profiles deeper
94
penetration, extra violent impact, by contrast the preposition against in (18b) says nothing about the depth of the impact only that the trajector exerts force on the landmark, i.e. the trajector faces the landmark. The speaker emphasizes the notion of penetration into the landmark as opposed to mere resistance to it, i.e. in (18a) the boat had greater force than the tide and broke the tide; penetrated the tides in the sea, while in (18b) the force between the boat and tide is equal; the boat is stable against the strength of the tide.
95
Chapter Six Summary and Conclusion This study is concerned with the construal of spatial prepositions. In English language, construal refers to the speaker’s ability to conceptualize a situation in different ways and use different linguistic expressions to represent them in discourse. Within the topic of prepositions, the study covered the most common types of spatial prepositions. The linguistic theory in which the study is rooted is Cognitive Semantics, a new approach to language analysis, which concentrates on meaning. Adopting the main assumptions of Cognitive Semantics, the study has reached the following findings: 1. In terms of categorization, the study found that each spatial preposition has more than one meaning. The semantic network of any spatial preposition includes both the prototype and the remaining senses derived from it by semantic extension; table (1) is a summary of their semantic network.
Spatial
Prototype
Periphery
preposition
Above
‘higher position’, as in There is
a mirror above the sink.
‘aforementioned’, as in Write to the address above for further information.
‘Transcendent’, as in She values her job above her family.
‘rank’, as in He does not like having somebody above him telling him what to do.
‘Exceeding the limit’, as in Even his father was not above suspicion.
Across
‘sides’, as in I draw a line across the page.
‘opposite’, as in The pharmacy is just across the clinic.
96
‘in every part of’ as in Across the world people are praying for peace.
Against
‘touching’ as in I hit my leg
‘measure’, as in The room is 3 miters across.
‘opposing’ as in The use of certain drugs is
against the corner of the table.
against the law.
‘opposite direction’, as in They were driving against the traffic.
‘facing’, as in we will be competing against the best companies.
‘protection’, as in Peshmarga have to arm themselves against ISIS attacks.
‘be ready for’, as in Peshmarga must prepare against ISIS.
At
‘point’, as in We will meet
Parwana at the entrance.
‘time/age’, as in Are you free at 5?, and One can retire at the age of 65.
‘direction’, as in He yelled at her.
‘cause’, as in At my suggestion, he went to see her.
‘judgment’,
as
in I
was not
good at
mathematics.
‘condition’, as in She felt at ease.
‘attempt’, as in She was just picking at her food.
‘amount’, as in Water boils at 100° Celsius.
‘distance’, as in Can you read the sign at 50 meters?
Before
‘earlier than’, as in Lisa arrived
home before me.
‘anteriority’, as in There were people before me in the queue.
‘place’, as in The shop is just before the school.
‘priority’, as in Quality must always come before profit.
97
‘examination’, as in She appeared before the committee.
Behind
‘at the back of’, as in The cat is
behind the car.
‘responsible for’, as in ISIS is behind the Spiker massacre.
‘supporting’, as in I’m lucky because my parents are behind me all the time.
‘no longer’, as in To start a new life, she put all her worries behind her.
Below
‘low position’, as in For further information
see
below
‘time’, as in We are behind the schedule.
‘less’, as in His mark in English has been below
the
chart.
60.
‘rank’, as in He has three people working below him.
Beyond
‘further away’, as in The house
is beyond the hill.
‘later than’, as in The party went on beyond midnight.
‘more than’, as in His condition was beyond what the doctors imagined.
‘out of limit’, as in Math is completely beyond me.
By
‘a close distance away’, as in
‘impossible’, as in The car is beyond repair.
‘means’, as in The doctor cut the placenta by
The flower pot is by the door.
scissors.
‘according to’, as in By law you have to be 65 to retire.
‘exact time’, as in We sold 200 tickets by noon.
‘during’, as in We slept by day and studied by night.
‘proportion’, as in Asia cell workers are paid by the hour.
‘divide’, as in What is 6 divided by 2?
98
‘past’, as in In She went by the door.
‘sequential’, as in The attacks were increasing by the hour.
‘emphasis’, as in By God, I will revenge my son’s death.
In
‘visit’, as in On the way, I stopped by your shop.
‘containment’, as in the bag is
‘ involved’, as in They are in the army.
in the car.
‘characteristic’, as in the door is in green color.
‘address’, as in Naza lives in Kurdsat district.
‘during’, as in How many civilians died in Vietnam war?
‘no more than’, as in The letter arrived in 2 days.
‘before the end’, as in He managed to pay off his debts in 3 years.
‘part’, as in He is a member in the committee.
‘experiencing’, as in They clung together in horror as they watched conjuring.
‘expressed’, as in The research is in English.
‘arrangement’, as in Cut the cake in two.
‘approximation’, as in The temperature is expected to be in the thirties tomorrow.
‘proportion’, as in The chances of that happening must be 1 in a million.
‘result’, as in He refused to say anything in reply to the journalist’s question.
‘cause’, as in In helping others, I’m directly helping myself..
In front of
‘near’, as in The killer is in front of you.
‘wearing’, as in They came in national costume.
‘seeing/hearing’, as in Please do not swear in front of the children.
99
Into
‘inside’, as in The baby crawled
into the rabbit hole.
‘touching forcefully’, as in She bumped into the lamppost while skating.
‘towards’, as in There was an accident on the main road into town.
‘time’, as in She carried on working late into the night.
‘division’, as in What is 6 into 2?
‘change’, as Her novel has been translated into 19 languages.
‘about’, as in She is researching into possible cure for AIDS.
Near
‘a short distance away’, as in
‘interested’, as in She is into classical music.
‘not far away in time’, as in Lara’s birthday is
The hotel is near the campus.
near Christmas.
‘in the state of’, as in I was near tears during the movie.
‘similar to’, as in Nobody comes near her in kindness.
On
‘location (physical)’, as in The
cat is on the sofa.
‘direction’, as in The attack on ISIS lasted all night.
‘next to/ along the side of’, as in A peace zone has been created on the border between the countries.
‘possession’, as in I have not got my driving license on me.
‘burden’, as in I had so much on my mind, I could not think straight.
‘writing’, as in He carved her name on a tree.
‘recording’, as in I always keep my research on disk.
‘pain’, as in He smashed his elbow on the door.
‘time’, as in The book that I ordered arrived on
100
Friday.
‘after’, as in He inherited a million dollars on his aunt’s death.
‘availability’, as in The meeting is on.
‘covering’, as in They are not on the phone.
‘process’, as in She set her car on fire.
‘relation’, as in His thesis is on American modern drama.
‘involvement’, as in Alan is working on his new project.
‘using’, as in Some calculators run on solar power.
‘member’, as in How many people are in Zara’s staff?
‘tool’, as in She is googling on the internet.
‘order’, as in I accepted the offer on the advice of my lawyer.
Onto
‘movement’, as in I slipped as I
stepped onto the platform.
‘adding’, as in He has been voted onto the committee.
‘shifting’, as in How did we get onto this subject?
Over
‘above/higher position’, as in A
‘holding’, as in The baby gripped onto my finger.
‘knowing’, as in How did you get onto this deal?
‘covering’, as in Do not spill coffee over my
coat hang over the chair.
carpet.
‘across’, as in The road over the hill is dangerous.
‘other side’, as in They live over the river.
‘during’, as in Shall we discuss the matter over lunch?
‘more than’, as in I value quality of life over
101
money.
‘math’, as in 35 over 5 is 7.
‘falling’, as in The car went over the cliff.
‘connected with/concerning’, as in She is taking the newspaper to court over the allegation.
‘control’, as in She has power over her followers.
‘no longer affected’, as in She has never got over the shock of her daughter’s death.
‘using’, as in They spoke over the phone.
‘preferring’, as in Why did you choose Linguistics over Literature?
Past
‘further/beyond’, as in
Peshmarga formed a solid wall to stop ISIS from getting past
clock.
them.
Through
‘after (time/age)’, as in She is past her biological ‘up to and further’, as in The bus just went past us.
‘one side to another’, as in We
‘until/time’, as in He slept through the day.
drove through the tunnel.
‘process’, as in It is a miracle these buildings came through the war undamaged.
‘using’, as in The robber entered the bank through the back door.
‘past’, as in He drove through the red light.
‘result’, as in How many working days were lost through boycott?
To
‘showing direction/destination’,
as in I asked somebody the way to the town.
‘receiving’, as in She whispered something to her.
‘against’, as in He held a knife to her throat.
‘until’, as in She sang the baby to sleep.
‘for each/measurement’, as in There are 3 children for each teacher.
‘between’, as in They expect 5 to 6 thousand
102
marchers tomorrow.
‘in connection with/relationship’, as in what was there response to your query?
‘causing’, as in I discovered to my horror that my laptop was stolen.
‘considered by’, as in A thousand dollars is nothing to him.
‘matching’, as in I have lost the trousers to this jacket.
‘compared with’, as in Sarah beat me by three games to two.
‘in honor of’, as in The thesis is dedicated to his father.
‘serving’, as in As a personal trainer to the rich, he earned millions of dollars.
Under
‘lower position’, as in She used
to hide her diary under the
be under Elizabethan literature.
pillow.
‘place in list’, as in Books on Shakespeare would ‘less than’, as in The toy is not suitable for children under the age of 5.
‘control’, as in The company flourished under his firm leadership.
‘rule/law’, as in Under the new law, all students must carry badges at all times.
‘in a particular state’, as in She is under a lot of pressure.
‘in progress’, as in Our new house in under construction.
‘name’, as in For his own safety, he has to operate under a false name.
Underneath
‘under/below’, as in They found a bomb underneath the car.
‘character’, as in She seems confident, but she is really quite shy underneath.
Table 1: The Multiple senses of spatial prepositions
103
2. In terms of configuration, the study found that the best way to characterize spatial prepositions is by placing them in domains in which they show relationships of similarity and contrast, figure (20) is a summary of their (sub) domains.
104
Figure 22. The Domains of spatial prepositions
105
3. In terms of conceptualization, the study found that two prepositions sharing the same context are different in meaning. Each adds to the sentence a special meaning which is different from the meaning added by its counterpart, table (2) is a summary of the semantic distinctions.
Semantic Distinctions
Direct vs. covered
Spatial prepositions
under vs. underneath
Examples
The headphone is under the bag. The headphone is underneath the bag.
Direct vs. indirect
under vs. below
The lifejacket is under the seat. The lifejacket is below the seat.
Non-contact vs. contact
above vs. over
Lisa hung the sweater above the chair. Lisa hung the sweater over the chair.
On vs. in
across vs. through
They walked across the grass. They walked through the grass.
Sequence than vs. closeness
before vs. in front of
The car parked before the gate. The car parked in front of the gate.
At the back of vs. further away
behind vs. beyond
There is a bicycle behind the tree. There is a bicycle beyond the tree.
Containment vs. point
in vs. at
Sarah is at the library. Sarah is in the library. Dara was at the game. Dara was in the game.
Containment vs. location
in vs. on
He is in the train. He is on the train.
106
Location (physical) vs.
on vs. onto
Movement
He put the book on the shelf. He put the book onto the shelf.
A short distance away vs.
near vs. by
a close distance away
Point vs. touching
The ball is near the net. The ball is by the net.
at vs. against
Alan threw the stone at the window. Alan threw the stone against the window.
A close distance away vs.
by vs. past
further than
Come in by the first door to the left. Come in past the first door to the left.
Containment vs. movement
in vs. into
Vania ran in the room. Vania ran into the room. Alan jumped in the water. Alan jumped into the water.
Direction/destination vs. point
to vs. at
He threw the ball to Sivan. He threw the ball at Sivan.
Movement vs. facing
into vs. against
The boat sailed into the tide. The boat sailed against the tide.
Table 2: The semantic distinction of spatial prepositions
107
References Allwood, Jens and Gärdenfors, Peter. (1999) Cognitive Semantics: Meaning and Cognition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamin’s publishing company. Auwera, Johan van der (1998) Adverbial constructions in the languages of Europe. Germany: Walter de Gruyter & Co. Biber, Douglas. Conrad, Susan. and Leech, Geoffery. (2002) Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Longman. Brenda, Maria. (2014) The cognitive perspective on the Polysemy of the English spatial preposition over. United Kingdom: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Bussmann, Hadumod. (1996) Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London: Routledge. CALD. Cambridge Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary. (2008) 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chomsky, Noam. (2002) Syntactic Structures. 2nd ed. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Clausner, Timothy, and Croft, William. (1999) Domains and Image Schemas. Cognitive linguistics, (10)1, 1-31. Croft, William, and Cruse, Alan. D. (2004) Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
108
Cruse, Alan. D. (2006) A Glossary of semantics and pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Cuyckens, Hubert. “The Dutch spatial preposition "in": A cognitive-semantic analysis.” Ed. Zelinsky-Wibbelt, Cornelia (1993). The Semantics of Prepositions: From Mental Processing to Natural Language Processing. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 27-71. Dirven, Rene, and Verspoor, Marjolijn. (2004) Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Evans, Vyvyan. (2007) A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. -------------(2011)
“Language
and
Cognition:
The
view
from
Cognitive
Linguistics”. In V. Cook and B. Basseti (eds.), Language and Bilingual Cognition. Evans,Vyvyan, and Green, Melanie. (2006) Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburg University Press. Evans, Vyvyan, Bergen, Benjamin. K, and Zinken, Jorg. (eds.) (2007). The cognitive linguistics enterprise: an overview. London: Equinox. Geeraerts, Dirk, and Cuyckens, Hubert. (eds.) (2007) The Oxford handbook of cognitive linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.
109
Goddard, Cliff. (1998) Semantic Analysis: A practical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hamawand, Zeki. (2007) Suffixal Rivalry in Adjective Formation: A Cognitive Corpus Analysis. London: Equinox. ------------------(2008) Morpho-Lexical Alternation in Noun Formation. London: Palgrave Macimillan. ------------------(2009) The Semantics of English Negative Prefixes. London: Equinox ------------------(2011) Morphology in English: Word Formation in Cognitive Grammar. London: Continuum. ------------------(2012) „Prepositional Complement Clauses in English: An Exploration in Cognitive Grammar‟. American International Journal of Contemporary Research 2.7:146-156. ------------------(2016) Semantics: A Cognitive Account of Linguistic Meaning. London: Equinox. Hofmann, Thomas. R. (1993) Realms of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantics. Routledge: New york and London.
110
Huddleston, R, and Pullum, G. (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Janda, Laura. (2000) “Cognitive Linguistics”. University of North Carolina. Langacker,W.Ronald. (1987) Foundations of Cognitive Grammar: Theoretical Prerequisites. Vol.1. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ------------------(1990) Concept, Image and Symbol: The Cognitive basis of Grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ------------------(1991) Foundations of cognitive grammar: descriptive application. Vol. 2. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ------------------(1997) „Consistency, Dependency and Conceptual Grouping‟. Cognitive Linguistics 8: 1-32. ------------------(1998) ‘ Concpetualization, symbolisation, and grammar’ Tomasello (ed.), The New Psychology of Language. Cognitive and Functional approaches to Language Structure. Mahwah NJ/London: Erlbaum 1-39. ------------------(1999) Grammar and Conceptualization. Germany: Mouton de Gruyter. -------------------(2008) Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
111
------------------(2013)
Essentials
of Cognitive
Grammar.
Oxford: Oxford
University Press. LDCE Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2009) 5th ed. Pearson Longman. Lee, David. (2001) Cognitive Linguistics: an Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lindstromberg,
Seth.
(2010)
English
Prepositions
Explained.
Rev.ed.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Murphy, Raymond. (2002) English grammar in use: A self-study reference and practice book for intermediate students of English ; with answers. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . O’Dowd, Elizabeth. M. (1998) Prepositions and particles in English: A discourse functional account. United States: Oxford University Press. OALD Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2010) 8th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Quirk, Randolph, Greenbaum, Sidney. Leech, Geoffrey, and Svartivic, Jan. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the EnglishLanguage. London: Longman.
112
Radden, Gunter, and Dirven, Rene. (2007) Cognitive English Grammar. Vol.2. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Richards, Jack. C, and Schimdt, Richards. (2010) Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. 4th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd Saint-Dizier, Patrick. (2006) Syntax and semantics of Prepositions. United States: Springer-Verlag New York. Stageberg, Norman. C. (1981) An Introductory English Grammar. 4th ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Swan, Michael. (2005) Practical English Usage. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sweester, Eve. E. (1990) From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tabakowska, Elzbieta, Michal, Choinski, and Lukasz, Wiraszka. (2010) Cognitive Linguistics in Action: From Theory to Application and Back. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. Talmy, Leonard. (2000) Toward a Cognitive Semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
113
Taylor, John. (1995) Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Taylor, John. (2002) Cognitive Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Tomasello, Michael. (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. Tyler, Andrea, and Evans, Vyvyan. (2003) The Semantics of English Prepositions.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
114
امل ـ ـ ـلـ ـ ـخ ـ ـ ـص ثـ ـ ـحـ ـىـاول ه ـ ـره ال ـدزاس ـ ـة م ـ ـ ـف ـ ـهـ ـىم ثـ ـفـ ـس ـ ـي ـس جـ ـىـ ــائ ـ ـيـ ــات ح ـ ـسوف الـ ـجـ ـ ـس الحــيزًــة في الـلـغ ـة ؤلاهـى ـلـيزًة .الـحـ ـف ـسـ ـير ًـ ـش ـ ـير الى الع ـ ـمـ ـلـيـة الـتي ًـل ـىم م ـ ـن خ ـالل ــ ـ ها اإلا ـح ـىـلـم بـفـه ـم ظ ــسف مىـ ــاوي ب ـط ـسائ ـ ـم م ـخ ـح ـلـ ـفـة وي ـسـحـخـدم لـ ــرلـ ــك حـ ـسوف الـجـ ـس الحــيزً ــة اإلاـ ـىـاسـب ـة ل ـ ـح ـمـثـيـل ـهم في الـحـىاز. ث ـلـ ـدم هـره الـدزاسـة ثـ ـحـلـي ـال هـحـىيا ل ـح ـسوف الـجـس الحــيزً ــة وف ـلا لى ـهـج عـلـم الداللة ؤلادزاوي .هـره الـدزاس ـة ثـفـترض أن ه ـل ح ـسف جس حــيزي لـه م ـع ـنى م ـحـدد في الـلـغـة ،و ثـخـح ـلـف فيه عـن الحسوف آلاخـسي .و لـ ــرلـ ــك ثـهدف ه ـ ـره الـ ـدزاس ـ ـة الى م ـعـالـجـة مىضىع ألاسـحـخـدامـات الـعـشـىائـيـة لـحـسوف الـجـس الحــيزً ــة مـن خـالل جـسـلـيـط الـض ـىء عـلى الـف ـسوق الـداللـيـة الـتي ث ـم ـيزها عـن غ ــ ـ يرها .وي ـحـحـلـم ذل ـك مـن خ ـالل ث ـطـب ـيـم ه ـظـ ـسيـات الـحـ ـح ـلـي ـل ؤلادزاهـي الـثـالجـة :هـ ـظ ـسيـة الـحـ ـصـى ـيـف ،هـ ـظـسي ـة الـحـ ـش ـىـي ـل ،وه ـ ـظـسيـة الـحـ ـص ـىز .وكد ث ـىص ــ ـ لـت ه ـ ـره الـدزاسـة الى جـالث هـحـائ ـج مـح ـددة .أوال ،ه ـل حسف من حـسوف الـجـس الحــيزً ــة له اهـثر م ـن م ـع ـنى .جـاهـيـاً ،مىن وضـع ح ـسوف الـج ـس الحــيزًــة في ح ـل ـىل داللية جـشـترن في م ـعـى ـاها الـسئ ـيـسـي وثـخـح ـل ـف في الـحـ ـف ـاصـي ـل الـدكـيـل ـة .جـالـث ـا ،في حـال أسـح ـع ـمـال اجىين أو أهـ ـثر مـ ـن حـ ـسوف ال ـج ـس الحــيزً ــة في ال ـجـم ـل ـة ه ـ ـف ـسها فـ ـأنها ثـ ـخـح ـل ـف في اإلا ـع ـاهاها ح ـي ـث ان لـ ـى ـل ح ـسف جـس حــيزي وظ ـي ـف ـة خ ـاصـة به في ال ـل ـغ ـة.
ح ـكـ ـ ـومـ ـ ـة اق ـلـ ـي ـ ـم ك ـردس ـتـ ـ ـان -الع ـراق وزارة الت ـعـ ـل ـي ـم الع ـالي و الب ـح ـث العـلمي جـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـام ـ ـ ـ ـ ـعـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـة الـ ـ ـ ـ ـس ـ ـ ــ ـ ـل ـ ـ ـ ـ ـيـ ـ ـ ـ ـم ـ ـ ـ ـاه ـ ـ ـ ـي ـ ـ ـ ـ ـة فـ ــاك ـ ـل ـ ـت ـ ــى ال ـ ـ ـع ـ ـل ـ ـ ــوم الاهـ ـ ـ ـ ـس ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــاه ـ ـ ـ ـي ـ ـ ـ ـ ــة سـكول الـلـغات – قسم اللغة ألاهكـليزية
مـ ـف ـ ـهـ ـىم ال ـت ـ ـف ـ ـس ـ ـيـ ـر أزواج ح ـ ـروف ال ـج ـ ـر ال ـح ـ ـيزي ـ ـة فـي ال ـ ـلـ ـغـ ـة إلان ــ ـ ك ـ ـلـ ـي ـ ـسي ــ ـ ة: دراسـ ـة فـي ع ـ ـلـ ـم الداللة إلادراك ـ ـي رسـال ـة مـاجـس ـت ـير م ـق ـدم ـة الى م ـج ـل ـس سـك ـول الـلـغ ـات في جـام ـع ـة الـسـ ـل ـي ـم ـاه ـ ـي ـة ،ق ـسـ ـم الـلـغ ـة ألاه ـكـل ـيزيـ ـة ،كـج ـسء مـن م ـت ـط ـل ـب ـات هـي ـل ش ـهـادة املـاجـ ـس ـتـ ـير في الـل ـغـة الاهـك ـل ـي ـسي ـة و ع ـلـم الـلـ ـغة
مــن ق ـب ــل الن ـه رزك ـار ك ـم ـال
ب ـأش ـراف أ.م.د .زك ـي ه ـ ـم ـ ـىن ـ ـ ـد
6172كردى
6172ميالدى
115
پوخته له زمـانی یهكـان وهی جـىوت پـێـشناوه ش ـىێـن ـی ـ به ب ـیرۆكـهی لـێـك ـدانـه وهی ـه تـایـبـهتـه ئ ـهم لـێـكـۆڵـیـنـه وه ق ـسـهكـهر چـهمـكـگـهرایی بـۆ له ڕێـگـهیـه تییه لـه پـرۆس ـهیـهك كـه كه بـریـ وه ئ ـی ـنـگـل ـیزیـدا .لـێـكـدانـه بـارودۆخـێـك دهكـات به شـێ ـىازی ج ـیـاواز و پ ـێ ـش ـنــاوي ش ـىێـنـیی گـىن ـجـاو بـهكـار دههـێ ـنێت بۆ دهرخـسـتـنـیـان ئهم ارهكـاندا ، وهی وتـ له لـێدوانـهكـانـدا ،پـشـتـبـهسـتىو به ڕێبازی واتـاسـازیی هـۆشـهكی له شـیـكـردنـه دهكـات كه هـهر پـێـشنا وێـكى ش ـىێنی واتـایـهكی دیـاریـكـراوی خـۆیی هـهیـه له وه وهیـه گـریـمـانـهی ئـه لـێـكـۆڵـیـنـه ڕهمـهكـیـیـان ـهی ارهس ـهرێـك ب ـۆ بـهكـارهـێ ـنـانی ه ـه وهی چ ـ كه ه ـهوڵـدانـه بۆ دۆزیـنـه وه زمـانـدا .ئـامـانـجی تـىێـژی ـنـه وهی جـ ـی ـایـان دهب ـن ـه هـ ـۆی ئ ـه لهبـهرچ ـاوگ ـرت ـنی ئ ـهو ج ـی ـاوازیـیـه وات ـاس ـازی ـی ـان ـهی كـه پـێـشناوي ش ـىێنی به وهی ـان كـ ـه بـریـت ـین له: وه .بۆ ئهم م ـهبـهس ـت ـه ،س ـێ ت ـی ـۆری ه ـۆش ـهكی ب ـهكـار هـێ ـنراون ب ـۆ ش ـی ـكردن ـه بـك ـاتـه ئهن ـجـامی ىوه ب ـه سـێ وهكـه گ ـهی ـش ـت ـ ی ،ڕێ ـكـخ ـس ـتن و چـهم ـكـگـهرایی .لـه ئـ ـاك ـامدا تـىێ ـژیـن ـه پ ـۆل ـێ ـن ـك ـار یهكـ ان جـی ـاواز .ی ـەکـەم ،ه ـهر پـێـشنا وێـكى ش ـىێنی زی ـاتـر لـه وات ـای ـهكی ه ـهیـه .دووەم ،پـێـشناوه ش ـىێـن ـی ـ ىهی مـهودایـهكی گ ـش ـتیی زان ـی ـاریـدا پ ـێـن ـاس ـه ب ـك ـرێـن و الی ـهنی ج ـی ـاوازیی ئ ـهزم ـىون ـی ـی ـان دهشـێـت لـه چـىارچـێـ دهن .س ـێـی ـەم ،ك ـاتـێ ـك دوو پـێـشناوي شـ ـىێ ـنی ل ـه ه ـهمـان ج ـێـدا دهرب ـكـهون ،ئـ ـهوا ڕاڤ ـهی پ ـیـش ـان بـ دهكـرێ ـت. ج ـیـاوازی ـان بـۆ
حـلومــةتى هةريَنــى كوردصــتـان -عيـــزاق وةسارةتى خويَهدنى باالَو تويَذيهةوةى سانضتى سانــــــــــلـــــــــــــؤى صــــوــيَــــــنـــــانــى فـاكــةهَــتى سانـضـتـة مـزؤظـايـةتـيـيـةكــان صــلـــوهَـى سمــان – بةشـــى ئـيــهـطــوــيــشى
بــــريؤكـةى هــيَلـدانـةوةى جـــووت ثـيَــشــهـاوة شــويَـهـيـةكـان: هـيَـلـؤهَـيـهـةوةيـةكـى واتـاصـاسى هـؤشـةكـى
ئةم تويَـذيهةوةية ثيَـشـلةش كـزاوة بة ئةجنومةنى صـلوهَى سمـان ،سانلؤى صويَنانى ،بةشـى ئيهطويشى وةن بةشيَم هة ثيَداويضتييةكانى بةدةصتويَهانى ثوةى ماصتةر هة سمانى ئيهطويشى و سانضتى سماندا
هة اليةن النـة رِسطـار كـةمـال بة صةرثةرشتى ث.ى.د .سةكـى هـةمـةوةنـد 6172كــوردى
6172سايــهـى
