The Impact of Correlated Channel Fluctuations on the Connectivity of Wireless Ad-Hoc Networks Flavio Fabbri

Roberto Verdone

WiLAB, DEIS University of Bologna, ITALY Email: [email protected]

WiLAB, DEIS University of Bologna, ITALY Email: [email protected]

Abstract—Channel fluctuations affecting links of ad-hoc and sensor networks show an evident spatial correlation, besides the random behavior. Nonetheless, the vast majority of models used in the literature assign edges between pairs of vertices of a graph according to either the deterministic disk model or some random connection model assuming i.i.d. fluctuations. We believe none of the approaches reflects the reality. In this paper we introduce a Correlated Random Connection Model (CRCM) which accounts for angular correlation, by means of a tunable parameter, in the fluctuations that affect two links sharing one of the endpoints. Assuming a constant average number of neighbors, we study the percolating properties of correlated footprints on random graphs by computing the relative size of the two largest components of the graph and the probability of the event of (almost) connectivity. We also compare it to the case of some nonprobabilistic shapes of both theoretical and practical flavor. Our results show that the presence of correlation may be beneficial or detrimental, depending of whether one considers undirected or directed graphs, i.e., ultimately, on the application. Index Terms—Channel fluctuations, wireless networks, connectivity.

I. I NTRODUCTION Wireless ad-hoc and sensor networks are proven to be a rich field of investigation [1]. The great majority of such networks exploit multi-hopping techniques to route information along and, for this reason, they require a high degree of connectivity. Many works devoted their attention to connectivity issues of wireless networks both from a very theoretical perspective (e.g. using percolation theory, graph theory, geometric probability [2]–[5]) and experimentally [6]. The analysis of wireless networks connectivity based on solid mathematical ground as well as on computer simulation brought to light a strong dependence on the way the links from node to node are modeled [7]. Early connectivity papers (see, e.g., [8]) extensively employed the disk model (i.e., assumed a node has connections to all nodes within a fixed euclidean distance) because of its simplicity and analytical tractability. Pioneering results were achieved in that fashion. However, by looking at the coverage area of the transceiver of any commercial platform in realistic environments ( [9], Fig. 1), one can figure out that reality is way more complex, due to a variety of physical phenomena (presence of intra-nodal obstructions, scatterers, etc...) poorly captured by the disk model. Probabilistic tools revealed to be more adequate for modeling unstable and fluctuating links in wireless networks.

Owing to this motivation, the Random Connection Model (RCM) [10], which assigns a link between two nodes with some probability (depending, e.g., on their distance), has been increasingly used [11]–[15]. The RCM as described, e.g., in [7], gives rise to a graph where the edges are set by “throwing a dice” for every pair of nodes. In other words, even if it accounts for channel randomness, it assumes independence from link to link. This implies that neighboring links can potentially experience similar as well as dramatically different fluctuations with the same probability. However this conclusion is not supported by experimental evidence which, rather, clearly shows spatial correlated channel fluctuations, where the amount of correlation depends on the environment [9]. That said, we intuitively believe that the reality lies in between these two extreme opposites: the disk model and the RCM. In this paper we propose a Correlated Random Connection Model (CRCM) which accounts for the angular correlation of the channel fluctuations by means of tunable parameter, α. Hence, α controls the severity of correlation and ranges from zero to infinity. When it reaches zero (infinity), our model degenerates to the traditional disk model (RCM). As starting point, we consider a previously adopted statistical link model [14], which determines when one node is “audible” to another node, and we generalize it to handle the case of exponentially correlated fluctuations. The exponential law is chosen for its simplicity, since no other consolidated correlation function is found in the literature for this matter. Moreover, we explore the percolating properties of the CRCM on the random graph when varying α and compare it to some reference cases of both theoretical and practical flavor. Our performance metrics are the relative size of the largest and 2nd largest components of the graph, as well as the fraction of (almost) connected graphs observed. The analysis focuses on two types of graph, directed and undirected. Such a distinction is not imposed but rather descends from not just considering centrally symmetric footprint shapes [2]. In the case of directed graphs we consider two nodes to be connected if either of them is audible to the other. The results show in this case that the presence of correlation is detrimental from the network connectivity viewpoint. In the case of undirected graphs instead we consider two nodes to be connected if both of them are audible to the other. It appears that in this case correlation is beneficial to network

connectivity. The rest of the paper is articulated as follows. In Section II, related works are presented and the main contact points/differences with the present work are underlined. Section III introduces a statistical link model from the literature. Section IV presents our correlated random connection model. Finally Sections V and VI reports numerical results and conclusions, respectively. II. R ELATED W ORKS This paper is largely based on the work done by Franceschetti et al. in [2], where the percolating properties of random graphs under various connections models are addressed. The simulations are performed with the underlying assumption of considering only bidirectional links: this is made possible by the exploitation of centrally symmetric shapes all deployed on the nodes with the same orientation angle, which ensure that if a node falls into the footprint of another node, the reverse is also true. While preserving the approach of [2], we relax this constraint by considering both non centrally symmetric shapes and their deployment with random orientation angles. As a consequence, we also treat the case of non reciprocal links and the distinction between directed and undirected graphs arises from here. The properties of random connection models (see [7], [10]) are also explored in [2]. However the traditional RCM does not allow to account for the correlation experienced by those links sharing one of the two endpoints, which rather constitutes a physical evidence. In [16] and [17] the Authors state they are the first to address the effects of correlated shadowing on the connectivity of ad-hoc networks, and introduce NeSh, a joint shadowing model for links formation in a multi-hop network. According to NeSh, the random component of the power loss (in dB scale) at the receiver of node j when node i is transmitting, is split into the sum of two contributions: the shadowing loss and the non-shadow fading loss. The shadowing loss is assumed to have some spatial correlation.The main strength of this model is the possibility to account for correlation between any two pair of links, no matter if they share some endpoint or not. Instead, in the present paper we only focus on correlation which affects two links sharing one endpoint. However, one drawback of NeSh is that it only generates one shadowing sample per link, thus indirectly assuming that links experience the same channel fluctuation in both directions. This might be reasonable when modeling some large-scale phenomenon (e.g., the effect of an obstruction), while it is not the case of more general channel fluctuations found in ad-hoc and WSNs, where large and small scale contributions are almost undistinguishable due to the small distances [11]. Hence, while we share with [16], [17] the argument that the reality lies in between the disk and the i.i.d. channel fluctuation models, we adopt a different approach and, indeed, also reach a different conclusion: unlike stated in [17], we show that it is not necessarily true that i.i.d. link fading models lead to an overestimation of network connectivity.

[18] is devoted to the effects of cross-correlated shadowing in the simulation of cellular networks. Even though we are more on infrastructure-less networks, we follow the same strategy for generating correlated Gaussian r.v.’s, that is via the Cholesky factorization of the correlation matrix. III. T HE L INK M ODEL We make extensive use of the concept of “footprint”: the footprint of a node i is the 2D-region Fi such that a direct edge connecting i to a potential node j can be drawn in the graph if and only if j is in Fi , where we assume that the presence of a link is the binary quantization of some physical parameter (e.g., the received power). How a footprint looks like is dictated by the link model employed. However, the key fact to keep in mind is that, when dealing with a statistical link model (as done here), the footprint is itself a statistical object. Therefore, we will sometimes denote as “realization of footprint” a particular outcome of the corresponding random process generating it. Unless otherwise stated, the expected area of the footprint is kept constant, while we study the impact of changing its shape. A link model that shows good adherence to the physical world of wireless networks is adopted in [14]. It accounts for the power loss due to propagation effects including both a distance-dependent path loss and random channel fluctuations caused by possible obstructions. Specifically, a directed radio link between two nodes is said to exist if L < Lth , where L is the power loss and Lth represents the maximum loss tolerable by the communication system. In that case, one node is said to be “audible” by the other. The threshold Lth depends on the transmit power and the receiver sensitivity. The power loss in decibel scale at distance d is expressed in the following form L = k0 + k1 ln d + s,

(1)

where k0 and k1 are constants, s is a Gaussian r.v. with zero mean, variance σ 2 , which represents the channel fluctuations. By suitably setting k1 , it is possible to accommodate an inverse square law relationship between power and distance (k1 = 8.69), or an inverse fourth-power law (k1 = 17.37), as examples. This can be viewed as a RCM which assign a directed link between two nodes at distance x with probability   Lth − k0 − k1 log x 1 √ g(x) = 1 − erfc . (2) 2 2σ By solving (1) for the distance d with L = Lth , we can Lth −k0 −s as the maximum define the transmission range TR = e k1 distance between two nodes at which communication can still take place. TR defines the footprint of a node. However, independent r.v.’s s for separate links are adopted, resulting in different values of TR in each direction, given a generic node. This yields a highly “jagged” footprint (similar to that of Fig. 2, top-right).

IV. A C ORRELATED R ANDOM C ONNECTION M ODEL (CRCM)

α=1

with ρ1,2 = e . Practically speaking, unlike the case where we employ the traditional RCM, here the channel fluctuations that affect the communications from A to B1 and from A to B2 are correlated by means of an exponentially decaying law. The parameter α may be set in such a way to strengthen or loosen the angular correlation distance. For instance, we may want RS (φ) to be less then  for some 2 ) angle φ∗ : in this case we need to set α > − ln(/σ |φ∗ | . When α → ∞, S(θ) simply becomes white Gaussian noise and the usual uncorrelated RCM is found. Now imagine that nodes B1 and B2 can move along the straight lines intersecting in A. The maximum distances at which communication can take place are (from (3)) R(θi ) = e

Lth −k0 −S(θi ) k1

α = 1000 100

[m]

100

0

0

0

100

0

100

[m]

RS(φ)

2

−α|θ2 −θ1 |

(b)

Fig. 1. (a): Reference scenario for the introduction of CRCM. (b): Realization of a slice.

(4)

with σ being constant and α ∈ [0, +∞ [ a tunable parameter. As a consequence, S(θ1 ) and S(θ2 ) are jointly Gaussian with zero mean covariance matrix   1 ρ1,2 Σ = σ2 , (5) ρ1,2 1

20o

x

[m]

100

100

80

80

60

60

S

φ ∈ [−π, π],

B2

θ2 d(A, B2 )

(a)

(3)

where S(θ) is a continuous stationary Gaussian random process having mean E[S(θ)] = 0 and autocorrelation RS (φ) = σ 2 e−α|φ| ,

θ1

A

[m]

i = 1, 2,

d(A, B1 )

R (φ)

Assuming three nodes, A, B1 , B2 , are arbitrarily placed on a plane as in Fig. 1(a), we focus on the two events of node A being audible to both nodes B1 and B2 . By employing the link model described in Section III and letting d(·, ·) denote the Euclidean distance operator, the channel losses (in dB scale) from A to B1 and from A to B2 are (from (1)) L(A, Bi ) = k0 + k1 ln d(A, Bi ) + S(θi ),

B1

y

40 20 0

40 20

−2

0 angle [rad]

2

0

−2

0 angle [rad]

2

Fig. 2. Top: two realizations of footprints obtained with α = 1 and α = 1000, respectively, and σ = 10, Lth = 32.32 dB, k0 = 40, k1 = 13.03. Bottom: corresponding autocorrelation functions, RS (φ), of the gaussian fluctuations.

expected area of a footprint does not depend on α and may be computed as    2π  1 1 2π 2 R (θ)dθ = E[R2 (θ)]dθ (8) E[A] = E 2 0 2 0  2 r02 2π = E[e−2S (θ)/k1 ]dθ. (9) 2 0 2

,

i = 1, 2

(6)

where Lth is the maximum loss tolerated by the system. R(θ1 ) and R(θ2 ) are two r.v.’s themselves. If we now generalize Fig. 1(a) and assume there are N receiving nodes B1 , . . . , BN equally distributed on the full circle (i.e., each one at angular distance Δθ = 2π/N from the neighbor), the r.v.’s R(θi ) = exp ((Lth − k0 − S(θi ))/k1 ), i = 1, . . . , N , define the maximum communication distance for the directions θ1 , . . . , θN (see Appendix A for implementation details). Now by letting N → ∞ we end up with the random process R(θ) = exp ((Lth − k0 − S(θ))/k1 ) = r0 exp(−S(θ))/k1 ), (7) with r0 = exp ((Lth − k0 )/k1 ), which defines the maximum communication distance in each direction, that is, the footprint of node A. Two realizations of footprint are reported in Fig. 2 together with the corresponding function RS (φ), for α = 1, 1000 and σ = 10. Note how the shape is more regular when α = 1 while appears incoherent for α = 1000. The

By noting that e−2S (θ)/k1 of (9) is Log-N(0, 4σ 2 /k12 ), we 2 2 easily find E[A] = πr02 e2σ /k1 . V. N UMERICAL R ESULTS Here we explore the percolating properties of the CRCM introduced in Section IV. Having just remarked that the expected area, E[A], of the footprint does not vary with α is of primary importance toward this goal. In fact, when nodes are distributed on the plane according to a stationary Poisson Point Process, the number of neighbors of a given node is Poisson distributed with mean given by the nodes density times E[A]. This fact allows us to merely evaluate the effects of differently shaped footprints on network percolation, while keeping a constant average number of neighbors. The same viewpoint was adopted in [2]. Each point in the plots shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6 has been obtained by means of 100 simulation runs. At each run, 500 nodes (on average)  are randomly distributed on a square region of side L = 500/λ, with λ being the nodes density. A total number, nf , of realizations of footprints are generated and normalized so that they all have the same area,

Relative size of 1st / 2nd largest component

1 slices

0.9 0.8

α=1

0.7 α=2

0.6

α=0 (circles)

α=Inf 0.5

squares 0.4

triangles

0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

Density of nodes [m−2]

Fig. 3. Directed graphs: relative size of the 1st and 2nd largest components as functions of nodes density, obtained with different footprints all having E[A] = π, nf = 10, N = 100 angular samples.

Relative size of 1st / 2nd largest components

1 0.9 0.8

α=0 (circles)

0.7

squares

0.6

triangles

α=1

α=5

α=Inf

0.5 0.4 0.3

slices

0.2 0.1 0 0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Density of nodes [m−2]

Fig. 4. Undirected graphs: relative size of the 1st and 2nd largest components as functions of nodes density, obtained with different footprints all having E[A] = π, nf = 10, N = 100 angular samples.

1 α=1

0.9

α=5 0.8 Probability of 90% connectivity

and each node gets a shape assigned at random. Based on the topology created, the adjacency matrix is computed and the following properties of the graph are evaluated: relative size of the largest component; relative size of the 2nd largest component; whether the graph is fully connected; whether at least 90% of nodes are in the largest component. In Fig. 3 the relative size of the 1st and 2nd largest components for directed graphs are reported as functions of the nodes density. The four solid lines represent the cases of angularly correlated footprints, with α = 0, 1, 2, ∞. Recall that α = 0 and α = ∞ are two boundary situations, since the former represents circular footprints while the latter gives rise to completely uncorrelated fluctuations. It clearly appears that the more they are uncorrelated (larger α), the smaller is the percolating density threshold. The reason of this is that more incoherent shapes, once the area is fixed, tend to spread further. As a consequence, while the number of neighbors of a node remains the same, their distance distribution has a heavier tail and this seems to help percolation. On the contrary, circles tend to let the neighbors “clusterize” in the vicinity of a node. To emphasize this, we also propose a purely theoretical comparison with non-probabilistic footprints, namely squares and triangles. Both of them perform better than circles: in fact, it is easy to figure out that shapes having fewer angles keep neighbors farther with respect to circles of the same area. Finally, taking this argument to the extreme, we consider “slices”, which are circular sectors of angle β = 20o and fluctuating border (see Fig. 1(b)). They somehow resemble the radiation pattern of a directional antenna and allow neighbors to be even farther, thus being the shape percolating at the lowest density. We thus conclude that correlation is a penalizing fact in directed graphs. In Fig. 4 the relative size of the 1st and 2nd largest components for undirected graphs are reported as functions of the nodes density. The first thing to note is that the density scale is stretched out and percolation happens at larger density values for all curves, with respect to Fig. 3. This is explained as follows: now an edge connecting to vertices is drawn in the graph only if the two nodes are both in each other’s footprint. This happens with a smaller probability compared to the event of having either one of the nodes in each other’s footprint. The second, less trivial, issue which can be observed in the plot is that the trend is inverted, meaning that in this case correlation is beneficial to network connectivity. In particular, circles result to be the most easily percolating shape, while slices are at the opposite extreme. The reason of this is the following: if a node A is audible to a node B at large distance, owing to a maximum of the footprint of B in the direction of A, reciprocity would require the footprint of A to have a maximum of the same size (or greater) exactly in the direction of B. This is of course an extremely rare event. Instead, considering footprints which are quite regular when the angle varies, if the event “A audible to B” is verified, the reverse is very likely to hold, too. At the extreme, when circles are considered, the reverse is necessarily true. Figs. 5 and 6 are a means for comparing the two different

α=Inf

0.7

α=0 (circles)

0.6 0.5

α=1

0.4

α=5 0.3

α=Inf

0.2 undirected graphs

directed graphs

0.1 0 0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Density of nodes [m−2]

Fig. 5. Comparison between the two cases of directed/undirected graphs: probability of having at least 90% of nodes in the largest component as a function of nodes density, obtained with correlated footprints (α = 0, 1, 5, ∞) all having E[A] = π, nf = 10, N = 100 angular samples.

criteria for setting edges in graphs. The same trends are observable as in the previous figures, while the performance metrics considered are the fraction of graphs with at least 90% of nodes in the largest component (Fig. 5) and the fraction of fully connected graphs (Fig. 6).



0.9

T

0.7 α=0 (circles)

α=Inf

0.6

α=1

0.5 α=5

0.4

α=5

0.3 α=1 0.2 undirected graphs

directed graphs

0.1

α=Inf 0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

−2 Density of nodes [m ]

Fig. 6. Comparison between the two cases of directed/undirected graphs: probability of having a fully connected graph as a function of nodes density, obtained with correlated footprints (α = 0, 1, 5, ∞) all having E[A] = π, nf = 10, N = 100 angular samples.

VI. C ONCLUSIONS In this paper we have introduced a simple model for taking into account the correlation of the fluctuations affecting radio links in ad-hoc networks. The degree of such correlations has been modeled by means of a tunable parameter. For some setups our model degenerates into previously introduced ones, namely the disk model and the i.i.d. fluctuations model, which have been shown to be boundary cases. Percolation of correlated footprints on the random graph has been studied in the two cases of directed and undirected graphs, and comparisons to non-probabilistic footprints have been provided. The study has revealed that correlations of channel fluctuations are beneficial in directed graphs while they are detrimental in undirected ones. Hence, their effects can only be evaluated within specific application contexts, while no general trend is observed. We believe that real life scenarios lie in between the disk and the i.i.d. models and may be well represented by an opportune tuning of the parameter α, which is left to future experiments. A PPENDIX A The array y = {S(θ1 ), . . . , S(θN )} containing the joint Gaussian r.v.’s can be generated by a linear transformation of the array x = {x1 , . . . , xN }, containing independent Gaussian r.v.’s of zero mean and variance σ 2 , as y = C x, where C T is such that Γ = C C , i.e., is the Cholesky factorization of Γ, with Γ being the correlation matrix, which must be symmetric and positive semi-definite [18]. By so doing, we generate N correlated fluctuations to be distributed on the full circle every Δθ. However, there is no correlation between, e.g., S(θ1 ) and S(θN ), which is instead desirable, since they are at neighboring angles. We solve this problem by first estimating the correlation length: assume fluctuations on links whose angular distance is greater than, say, kΔθ, for some 0 < k < N , are negligible. Then, we form the array  x = {xN −k+1 , . . . , xN |x} and the matrix C such that

 Γ



Γ =⎣

0.8 Probability of 100% connectivity



Γ = C C , where ⎡

1

0k×k

Γ[k:1;N :k+1]



0k×k

Γ[k:1;N :k+1]T Γ[1:k;1:k]

 ⎤ ⎦,

(10) with 0k×k being the square matrix with all zero elements of order k and A[i:j;k;l] the sub-matrix of A composed of rows from i to j and columns from k to l. Now the array  y  = C x , which has length N + k, can be written as y  = {a1 , . . . , ak |y}, where a1 , . . . , ak are outputs that we discard and y contains the joint Gaussian r.v.’s which now have a “circular” correlation property, as desired. R EFERENCES [1] D. Culler, D. Estrin, and M. Srivastava, “Overview of sensor networks,” IEEE Computer, vol. 37, no. 8, pp. 41–49, Aug. 2004. [2] M. Franceschetti, L. Booth, M. Cook, R. Meester, and J. Bruck, “Continuum percolation with unreliable and spread-out connections,” Journal of Statistical Physics, vol. 118, no. 3/4, pp. 721–734, Feb. 2005. [3] M. D. Penrose, “On k-connectivity for a geometric random graph,” Random Structures and Algorithms, vol. 15, pp. 145–164, 1999. [4] P. Gupta and P. Kumar, “Critical power for asymptotic connectivity,” in Proc. of the 37th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Tampa, Florida, USA, Dec. 1998. [5] C. Bettstetter, “On the minimum node degree and connectivity of a wireless multihop network,” in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks and Comp.(Mobihoc), Proc. ACM Symp. on, Jun. 2002. [6] J. Kazemitabar, H. Yousefi’zadeh, and H. Jafarkhani, “The impacts of physical layer parameters on the connectivity of ad-hoc networks,” in IEEE International Conference on Communications 2006, vol. 4, 2006, pp. 1891–1896. [7] M. Franceschetti and R. Meester, Random Networks for Communication: From Statistical Physics to Information Systems, Cambridge Series in Statistical and C. U. Probabilistic Mathematics, Eds., 2007. [8] P. Santi and D. M. Blough, “The critical transmitting range for connectivity in sparse wireless ad hoc networks,” IEEE Trans. Mobile Comput., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 25–39, 2003. [9] E. Miluzzo, X. Zheng, K. Fodor, and A. T. Campbell, “Radio characterization of 802.15.4 and its impact on the design of mobile sensor networks,” in 5th European Conference on Wireless Sensor Networks, EWSN’08, Bologna, Italy, vol. 1, 2008, pp. 171–188. [10] R. Meester and R. Roy, Continuum Percolation, C. U. Cambridge University Press, Ed., 1996. [11] R. Verdone, D. Dardari, G. Mazzini, and A. Conti, Wireless sensor and actuator networks, f. e. Elsevier, Ed., 2008. [12] F. Fabbri and R. Verdone, “A statistical model for the connectivity of nodes in a multi-sink wireless sensor network over a bounded region,” in IEEE 14th European Wireless Conference, EW2008, 22-25 Jun 2008, pp. 1–6. [13] ——, “A multi-sink multi-hop wireless sensor network over a square region: Connectivity and energy consumption issues,” in IEEE GLOBECOM 2008 Workshops, accepted, 30 Nov-4 Dec 2008. [14] J. Orriss and S. K. Barton, “Probability distributions for the number of radio transceivers which can communicate with one another,” IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 676–681, Apr. 2003. [15] D. Miorandi and E. Altman, “Coverage and connectivity of ad hoc networks presence of channel randomness,” in 24th Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Societies, INFOCOM 2005., vol. 1, 2005, pp. 491–502. [16] N. Patwari and P. Agrawal, “Nesh: A joint shadowing model for links in a multi-hop network,” in IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, ICASSP, March 31-April 4 2008, pp. 2873–2876. [17] ——, “Effects of correlated shadowing: Connectivity, localization, and rf tomography,” in International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks, IPSN, 22-24 April 2008, pp. 82–93. [18] T. Klingenbrunn and P. Mogensen, “Modelling cross-correlated shadowing in network simulations,” in Vehicular Technology Conference, VTC - Fall. IEEE VTS 50th, vol. 3, 19-22 Sept. 1999, pp. 1407–1411.

The Impact of Correlated Channel Fluctuations on the ...

L(A, Bi) = k0 + k1 ln d(A, Bi) + S(θi), i = 1, 2,. (3) where S(θ) is a ..... a wireless multihop network,” in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks and. Comp.(Mobihoc), Proc.

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5 U. R sech2(y/s). (2). We use the following values for our control parame- ters: UR 5 40 m s21 ..... verse is found at low frequency, when baroclinicity anomalies are ..... time scale with a single number when the eddy forcing spectrum has some ...

The Impact of the Recession on Employment-Based Health Coverge
ent-B as ed Cov erage: Dependent. Unins ured. Co verag e an d. Percen tag e T h at Are Un in su ...... 2 See www.nber.org/cycles/april2010.html .... Chairman Dallas Salisbury at the above address, (202) 659-0670; e-mail: [email protected].

the impact of young workers on the aggregate ... - Semantic Scholar
years, from various years of the Statistical Abstract of the United States. The following observations are missing: 16–19 year olds in 1995 and 1996; 45–54 year old men in Utah in 1994; and women 65 and over in. Delaware, Idaho, Mississippi, Tenn

The Impact of the Astro2010 Recommendations on ...
Feb 16, 2009 - gather more data than in the prior cumulative history of astronomy. ... immediate public data access is the next logical step in the evolution of ...

pdf-173\hispanisation-the-impact-of-spanish-on-the ...
... apps below to open or edit this item. pdf-173\hispanisation-the-impact-of-spanish-on-the-lex ... ges-of-austronesia-and-the-americas-empirical-appr.pdf.