The distribution of Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes Daniel M. Gordon∗

Carl Pomerance†

August 22, 2001

Abstract Let L(x) denote the counting function for Lucas pseudoprimes, and E(x) denote the elliptic pseudoprime counting function. We prove that, for large x, L(x) ≤ x L(x)−1/2 and E(x) ≤ x L(x)−1/3 , where L(x) = exp(log x log log log x/ log log x).

1

Introduction

A pseudoprime is a composite number n for which 2n−1 ≡ 1 mod n. The smallest pseudoprime is 341. Let P(x) be the number of pseudoprimes up to x. The second author, in [12] and [13], showed that for all large x n

o

exp (log x)5/14 ≤ P(x) ≤ xL(x)−1/2 , where L(x) = exp(log x log3 x/ log2 x) and logk is the k-fold iteration of the natural logarithm. The exponent 5/14 has since been improved to 85/207, see [14]. ∗

Supported in part by a grant from Sandia National Laboratories Supported in part by an NSF grant 0 1980 Mathematics subject classification number Primary 11Y11 Secondary 11Y40, 11A51 †

1

2

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

Let D, P and Q be integers such that D = P 2 − 4Q 6= 0 and P > 0. Let U0 = 0, U1 = 1, and Uk = P Uk−1 − QUk−2 for k ≥ 2. Then a composite number n is a Lucas pseudoprime if (n, 2D) = 1 and Un−ǫ(n) ≡ 0 (mod n),

(1)

where ǫ(n) denotes the Jacobi symbol (D|n). Let L(x) = LP,Q(x) be the number of Lucas pseudoprimes up to x. The best known bounds for L(x) are: n o exp {(log x)c1 } ≤ L(x) ≤ x · exp −c2 (log x log2 x)1/2 ,

for some absolute positive constants c1 and c2 . The upper bound is due to Baillie and Wagstaff [1], and the lower bound is due to Erd¨os, Kiss and S´ ark¨ozy [5]. Of course, the counting function L(x) depends on the choice of P and Q. The above result is thus understood to hold for all x ≥ x0 (P, Q). The first author introduced a similar test using elliptic curves. Let E be an elliptic curve over Q with complex multiplication by an order in √ K = Q( −r), for r ∈ Z+ , and suppose E has a rational point P = (x0 , y0 ) of infinite order. Then if n is a prime which is inert in K and does not divide the discriminant of E, (n + 1) P ≡ O

(mod n).

(2)

That is, when we view E as an elliptic curve over the finite field Z/nZ, the image of the point P has order dividing n + 1. An elliptic pseudoprime is a composite number n for which (−r|n) = −1, n is coprime to the discriminant of E and n satisfies (2). (The concept of (n + 1) P ≡ O (mod n) for composite n will be made precise in the next section.) Let E(x) = EE,P (x) be the number of elliptic pseudoprimes less than x. The best known upper bound for elliptic pseudoprimes was recently found by Balasubramanian and Murty, in [2]: for all sufficiently large x depending on the choice of curve E and point P , we have n

o

E(x) ≤ x · exp −c3 (log x log2 x)1/2 . The number c3 is positive and absolute. No good general lower bounds for elliptic pseudoprimes are known; the only result is from [6], that for certain curves and points, √ log x . E(x) ≥ log2 x

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

3

In this paper we improve the upper bounds for E(x) and L(x). The techniques used are similar to those of [12], with modifications to deal with elliptic curves similar to those of [2]. We show that E(x) ≤ x L(x)−1/3 and L(x) ≤ x L(x)−1/2 for large x. Throughout the paper, the letters p and q will always denote primes.

2

Elliptic curve preliminaries

For a field k of characteristic > 3, an elliptic curve over k may be represented as E(k) = {(x, y) ∈ k2 : y 2 = x3 + ax + b} ∪ O, where a, b ∈ k and O is the point at infinity. E is nonsingular if the discriminant ∆ = −16(4a3 + 27b2 ) 6= 0. In this case, E(k) can be naturally made into an additive group with O being the identity element. Suppose E is a nonsingular elliptic curve defined over Q. Let End E denote the ring of endomorphisms of E(Q). It is known that End √ E is either equal to Z or an order in an imaginary quadratic field K = Q( −r). In the latter case, E is said to have complex multiplication by K. For instance, √ curves of the form y 2 = x3 − Dx have complex multiplication by Q( −1); the endomorphism corresponding to i sends a point (x, y) to (−x, iy). If E is defined over Q and has complex multiplication by K, then K must have class number one, so that r ∈ {1, 2, 3, 7, 11, 19, 43, 67, 163}. Conversely, for each such r there are elliptic curves with complex multiplication √ by OK , √ the√full ring of integers of K. In addition, the fields Q( −1), Q( √−3), and Q( −7) have curves over Q with End E = Z + 2OK , and Q( −3) has curves with End E = Z + 3OK . For a rational number x, let u/v be its representation in lowest terms. Then Num(x) = u will denote its numerator, Den(x) = v its denominator, and x ˜ = uv their product. Let E(Q) be a nonsingular elliptic curve defined by the equation y 2 = ˜ = 1, by x3 +ax+b, where the coefficients a, b ∈ Q. If p is a prime with (p, 6∆) an abuse of notation, we can use this same equation to define a nonsingular elliptic curve E(Fp ) over Fp , the field of p elements. In fact there is a natural homomorphic projection E(Q) → E(Fp ) which takes (x, y) ∈ E(Q) to (x mod p, y mod p). If one of x, y has a factor p in the denominator, then (x, y) maps to O in E(Fp ). A celebrated theorem of Hasse is that for any nonsingular elliptic curve √ E(Fp ), the number of points can be expressed as p+1−ap , where |ap | ≤ 2 p.

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

4

There is a polynomial time, deterministic algorithm, due to Schoof [15], for computing the number ap . Nevertheless, for very large p, it is not an easy task to compute the order of E(Fp ). √ If E has complex multiplication by K = Q( −r), it is easier to compute |E(Fp )|: |E(Fp )| =

(

p + 1, p inert in K √ √ p + 1 − 2β, p = (β + γ −r)(β − γ −r)

(3)

where 2β, 2γ ∈ Z. Note that if p splits in K, formula (3) does √ not quite √ give |E(Fp )|, since we don’t know the sign of β (and if K = Q( −1) or Q( −3), there are extra units which add a few more possibilities). However, this is the only indeterminacy in (3), since primes p which split in K have a unique representation up to units as β 2 + rγ 2 . The representation of p as β 2 + rγ 2 can be found in random polynomial time by factoring the polynomial x2 + r in Fp , using Berlekamp’s algorithm [3]. Once a number c is found such that c2 + r ≡ 0 (mod p), one may use the method of Cornacchia [4] to determine β and γ. Determining the sign of β in (3) can √be done using class field √ in principle theory; it is worked out for K = Q( −1) and Q( −3) in [11]. For a nonsingular curve E(Q) with coefficients a, b ∈ Q, define the division polynomial ψn (x, y) by ψ0 = 0, ψ1 = 1, ψ2 = 2y, ψ3 = 3x4 + 6ax2 + 12bx − a2 , ψ4 = 4y(x6 + 5ax4 + 20bx3 − 5a2 x2 − 4abx − 8b2 − a3 ), and the recursion 2 ψm+n ψm−n = ψm−1 ψm+1 ψn2 − ψn−1 ψn+1 ψm .

Thus 3 ψn−1 ψ2n+1 = ψn3 ψn+2 − ψn+1

(4)

2 2 2yψ2n = ψn (ψn+2 ψn−1 − ψn−2 ψn+1 ).

(5)

and

5

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

The division polynomials characterize the division points of E(Q). Namely, P = (x0 , y0 ) ∈ E(Q) is an m-division point (i.e., mP = O) if and only if ψm (x0 , y0 ) = 0. This continues to make sense if we replace Q by some algebraic extension. However, we are primarily concerned here with the connection between the division polynomials and division points on E(Fp ). We now state three lemmas on division polynomials. See Chapter II of Lang [10] for many facts about these polynomials and, in particular, the following lemma. Lemma 1 Suppose E(Q) is a nonsingular elliptic curve with coefficients a, b ∈ Q and let P = (x0 , y0 ) be a point of infinite order on E(Q). For ˜ = 1, let P¯ be the image of P in E(Fp ). Suppose a prime p with (p, 6∆) 2 P¯ 6= O on E(Fp ). Then for any integer m > 2 we have mP¯ = O in E(Fp ) ⇐⇒ ψm (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0 (mod p). Of course, we understand the rational number ψm (x0 , y0 ) to be 0 (mod p) if in reduced form, its numerator is 0 (mod p). The second lemma involves the size of the values of the division polynomials: Lemma 2 Suppose E is a nonsingular elliptic curve, and P = (x0 , y0 ) is a point in E(Q) of infinite order. Then for all natural numbers m, 2 −3

|ψm (x0 , y0 )| < cm

for some constant c depending on the choice of curve E and point P . 2

Proof: Choose c such that c6 ≥ max{2, y0−2 } and |ψm (x0 , y0 )| < cm −3 for 2 m = 2, 3, 4. It is easy to show by induction that |ψm (x0 , y0 )| < cm −3 holds for all m, using (4) and (5). 2 Corollary 1 For E and P as in Lemmas 1 and 2, the number of primes p for which mP = O in E(Fp ) is O(m2 ). Proof: By Lemma 1, all such primes p divide the numerator of ψm (x0 , y0 ), 2 and by Lemma 2, ψm (x0 , y0 ) = O(cm ). Therefore it suffices to show that 2 the denominator of ψm (x0 , y0 ) is bounded by cm 2 .

6

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

Suppose we give a grading to the ring Z[a, b, x, y] by giving a weight 4, b weight 6, x weight 2 and y weight 3. Then ψm (x, y) is homogeneous of weight m2 − 1 with respect to this grading ([10], page 39). Therefore the denominator of ψm (x0 , y0 ) is less than 2 /3

|Den(y0 )m

2 /2

Den(x0 )m

2 /4

Den(a)m

2 /6

Den(b)m

2

| < cm 2 . 2

Corollary 1 implies the case r = 1 of Lemma 14 in Gupta and Murty [7]. They prove a more general result using a considerably more involved argument. Suppose E(Q), P = (x0 , y0 ) and√p are as in Lemma 1, and E(Q) has complex multiplication by K = Q( −r), where (−r|p) = −1. Suppose 2 P¯ 6= O on E(Fp ). From (3), (p + 1)P¯ = O in E(Fp ), so that by Lemma 1, ψp+1 (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0 (mod p). The key observation is that even if we do not know for sure that p is prime, we can still check if the congruence ψp+1 (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0 (mod p) holds. We say ˜ = 1 and (−r|n) = −1 a composite natural number n which satisfies (n, 6∆) is an elliptic pseudoprime (for the curve E and the point P ) if (y˜0 , n) = 1 and ψn+1 (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0 (mod n).

(6)

This is what we mean by the congruence in (2) for n composite. Note that if n is prime, then the condition (y˜0 , n) = 1 assures that 2 P¯ 6= O on E(Fn ). ˜ y˜0 ) = 1, define em = em (P ) as For any natural number m with (m, 6∆ the least positive number k for which ψk (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0 (mod m). (If no such ˜ y˜0 ) > 1, define em = ∞.) We will need the following k exists, or if (m, 6∆ lemma: ˜ y˜0 ) = 1, then Lemma 3 If m is a positive squarefree number with (m, 6∆ em = lcm{eq : q|m} and ψk (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0

(mod m) ⇐⇒ em |k.

Proof: The lemma is true for primes by Lemma 1, since ep is the order of the point P¯ in E(Fp ). Suppose m = q1 q2 . . . qs , with the qi ’s distinct primes.

7

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

Let l = lcm{eq1 , . . . , eqs }. Then ψl (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0 (mod m), so em ≤ l. But ψem (x0 , y0 ) ≡ 0 (mod qi ) for each qi , so each eqi |em . Thus em = l. The second assertion in the lemma follows from similar considerations. 2 A similar lemma was proved by Ward [16] for a, b, x0 , y0 ∈ Z, without the restriction that m be squarefree.

3

Elliptic pseudoprimes

Let E(Q) be a nonsingular elliptic curve with coefficients a, b ∈ Q and √ complex multiplication by Q( −r), a complex quadratic field with class number one, and let P = (x0 , y0 ) ∈ E(Q) have infinite order. Theorem 1 There is a constant X0 = X0 (E, P ) such that if n is a natural number and x ≥ X0 then   3 + log3 x . #{m ≤ x : m is squarefree and em = n} ≤ x · exp − log x 3 log2 x Proof: Unlike the exponent to which 2 belongs mod m studied with regular pseudoprimes, em may be greater than m. Thus n in the theorem may be greater than x. To determine an upper bound for n, if m ≤ x is squarefree and em = n, note that em

Y 3 √ 1+ √ ≤ (q + 1 + 2 q) ≤ m q q|m q|m Y

for x so large that x ≤

Y

!

≤x

Y

q≤2 log x

3 1+ √ q

!

(7)

q. That such an inequality should eventually

q≤2 log x

hold follows from the prime number theorem. Using partial summation and the prime number theorem, we have log

Y

q≤2 log x

3 1+ √ q

!



(log x)1/2 1 , √ ≪ q log2 x q≤2 log x X

and with (7) this implies that em ≤ x1+ǫ , for any ǫ > 0 and x ≥ x0 (ǫ). We shall take ǫ = 1/2 and shall assume n in the theorem satisfies n ≤ x3/2 . Let c = 1 − (4 + log3 x)/(3 log 2 x), and c′ = c − 1/(3 log 2 x), with x large enough so that c′ ≥ 7/8. Then we need to estimate: X

m≤x em =n

1 ≤ xc

X

em =n

m−c ≤ xc

X

p|m⇒ep |n

m−c = xc

Y

(1 − p−c )−1 = xc A,

ep |n

8

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes say. To prove the theorem it is sufficient to show that log A = o(log x/ log2 x).

(8)

Since c ≥ 7/8, we have log A =

X

p−c + O(1) =

X X

p−c + O(1).

d|n ep =d

ep |n

There are only a finite number of primes p with ep = d for d = 1 or 2, since those primes divide either the numerator of y0 (for d = 2) or the denominator of y0 (for d = 1). Assume now that d ≥ 3. By Corollary 1, there are at most αd2 primes p with ep = d, where α is a constant depending only on E and P . Call them q1 , q2 , . . . , qt , where 0 ≤ t ≤ αd2 . For each qi , E(Fqi ) has order kd where kd is a multiple of d satisfying √ √ qi + 1 − 2 qi ≤ kd ≤ qi + 1 + 2 qi . Therefore we have q√ i > kd/2. If √ qi is inert in K, then kd = qi + 1. If qi splits, say qi = (a + −rb)(a − −rb) = a2 + rb2 , then by (3) kd = qi + 1 − 2a = a2 − 2a + 1 + rb2 = (a − 1)2 + rb2 . The number of representations of kd as β 2 + rγ 2 with β, γ ≥ 0 is at most the number of divisors of kd: τ (kd) (see, for example Theorem 54 of [9]). In sum, the number of qi with the order of E(Fqi ) being kd is at most 2τ (kd) + 1 < 3τ (kd), and all of these qi satisfy qi > kd/2. From these facts, if d ≥ 3, X

p−c =

t X i=1

ep =d

qi−c ≤ 6

t X

τ (kd) (kd)−c

k=1

[αd2 ] −c

≤ 6 τ (d) d Using partial summation, and is

PN

k=1 τ (k)

X

τ (k)k−c .

k=1

= N log N + O(N ) (see [8]), this

α1−c τ (d) d2−3c (2 log d + log α)(1 + o(1)) 1−c ≪ (1 − c)−1 τ (d) d2−3c log d. =

6

(9)

9

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes To get rid of the log d factor, note that log d ≪ max{d1/ log2 x , log2 x log3 x} ≤ d1/ log2 x log2 x log3 x. Therefore,



d2−3c log d ≪ d2−3c log2 x log3 x so that (9) implies ′

X

ep =d

p−c ≪ (1 − c)−1 τ (d) d2−3c log2 x log3 x.

From the above computations, we have log A ≪ (1 − c)−1 log2 x log3 x < =

−1

(1 − c)

p|n

(1 − c)

log2 x log3 x

Y p|n



(1 − p2−3c )−2 = 2

X

where x is large enough that log



p|n

Q



(1 − p2−3c )−2



p2−3c + O(1) ≤ 2

p≤2 log x p

X

p|n

≥ x3/2 . This implies

log2 x (log x)3−3c ≪ . (3 − 3c′ ) log2 x log3 x



(1 − p2−3c )−2 ≤ (log x)1/2 ,

and with (10) we get log A ≪ which is o(log x/ log2 x).

log2 x log2 x log3 x (log x)1/2 log3 x 2



p2−3c + O(1),

p≤2 log x

Thus, if x is sufficiently large, we have Y

(10)





(1 − p2−3c )−2 ≪

Y p|n



(1 + 2p2−3c + 3(p2−3c )2 + . . .)

Y p|n

−1

Y



d|n

log2 x log3 x

Since 2 − 3c′ ≤ −5/8, we have log

τ (d)d2−3c

X

(11)

10

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

Theorem 2 For all sufficiently large x, depending on the choice of E and P , the number of elliptic pseudoprimes for E, P up to x is at most log x log3 x x · exp − . 3 log2 x 



Proof: As is now customary with proofs of upper bounds on pseudoprimes, we will divide the elliptic pseudoprimes n ≤ x into several possibly overlapping classes: (i) n ≤ x L(x)−1 , (ii) there is a prime p|n with ep ≤ L(x)3 , p > L(x)10 , (iii) there is a prime p|n with ep > L(x)3 and p ≤ 3x/L(x), (iv) there is a prime p|n inert in K with ep > L(x)3 , √ (v) there is a prime p|n which splits in K with L(x)3 < ep ≤ xL(x) and p > 3x/L(x), √ (vi) there is a prime p|n which splits in K with ep > xL(x) and p > 3x/L(x), (vii) n > x L(x)−1 and every prime p|n is at most L(x)10 . Clearly, the number of n in class (i) is at most x L(x)−1 . From Corollary 1, the number of primes p with ep = m is O(m2 ). Thus the number of primes p with ep ≤ L(x)3 is X

X

m≤L(x)3 ep =m

1≪

X

m2 < L(x)9 .

m≤L(x)3

Therefore the number of elliptic pseudoprimes in class (ii) is at most X

x/p < x L(x)−10

X

ep ≤L(x)3

p>L(x)10

1 ≪ x L(x)−1 .

(12)

ep ≤L(x)3

If p is a prime dividing an elliptic pseudoprime n, then from Lemma 3 (with m = p) we have n≡0

(mod p),

n+1≡0

(mod ep ),

(p, ep ) = 1.

(13)

11

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes The number of n ≤ x satisfying these conditions is at most 1+

x . pep

(14)

Thus the number of elliptic pseudoprimes in class (iii) is at most X

p≤3x/L(x) ep

x 1+ pep

!



X

1 +

p≤3x/L(x)

>L(x)3

X

p≤3x/L(x)

x pep

ep >L(x)3

The first sum on the right is at most 3x/L(x), and the final sum is at most of order x log2 x/L(x)3 . Thus the number of elliptic pseudoprimes in class (iii) is x ≪ . (15) L(x) If p is inert in K, ep |(p + 1), and so n = p is a solution to (13). This solution is prime, so the number of elliptic pseudoprimes divisible by p is at most x/(pep ). Therefore the number of elliptic pseudoprimes in class (iv) is at most X x log2 x x ≪ . (16) pep L(x)3 2
ep >L(x)3

For the special prime p dividing an elliptic pseudoprime n in class (v), let k = n/p, and l = ep . Since p splits, we have p = β 2 + rγ 2 for some √ |β|, |γ| < x, where 2β, 2γ ∈ Z. From (3), we have p ≡ 2β − 1 (mod ep ), since ep | |E(Fp )|. Thus √ n + 1 = kp + 1 ≡ k(2β − 1) + 1 ≡ 0 (mod l), |β| < x. (17) This means that possible integers 2β fall in a unique congruence class mod l/(k, l). For a fixed k and l, the number of β satisfying (17) is at most √ 4 x (k, l) + O(1). l For each β and l, the number of solutions γ to |E(Fp )| = β 2 + rγ 2 + 1 − 2β ≡ 0 (mod l)

12

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes is bounded by τ (4l/(r, 4l))(r, 4l) ≪ τ (l), since r ≪ 1. Since |γ| < number of γ’s corresponding to any β and l is thus ≪





x, the

!

x + O(1) τ (l). l

Summing over k and l, the number of elliptic pseudoprimes in class (v) is √



!

x (k, l) + O(1) l

X

k≤L(x) √ L(x)3
=x

X (k, l)τ (l)

l2

k,l





!

x + O(1) τ (l) l







X √ X (k, l)τ (l) +O +O x τ (l) . l k,l k,l

√ The final sum is easily seen to be O( xL(x)2 log x). The second sum is ≪

X τ (l) X τ (l) √ √ √ ≤ xL(x)2 ≪ xL(x)2 log2 x. xL(x) l l l k,l

Finally, the first sum is ≤ xL(x)

X τ (l) k,l

l2

≤ xL(x)2

X τ (l) l

l2



x X τ (l) x log2 x ≪ . L(x) l l L(x)

Combining these estimates, the number of elliptic pseudoprimes in class (v) is x log2 x ≪ . (18) L(x) To estimate the size of class (vi), let n = kp for some k > 1. We have p ≡ −1 + ap (mod ep ), since ep ||E(Fp )| = p + 1 − ap . Since n + 1 ≡ 0 (mod ep ), we have kp + 1 ≡ k(ap − 1) + 1 ≡ 0 and so |k(ap − 1) + 1| ≥ ep >



(mod ep ) xL(x).

(19)

13

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

√ Since |ap | ≤ 2 p, this means that k > L(x)/3. But then n = kp > x, and so class (vi) is empty for x sufficiently large. We will divide the pseudoprimes in class (vii) into two subclasses: those which have a squareful divisor s (i.e., for each prime p dividing s, p2 also divides s) with s > L(x)2 , and those which do not. The number of n < x in the first subclass is at most x x ≪ s L(x)

X

s>L(x)2 s squareful

using partial summation and the theorem that X √ 1 ≪ t. s≤t

s squareful

For the rest of class (vii), we have x/L(x) < n ≤ x, every prime p|n satisfies p ≤ L(x)10 , and the squareful part of n does not exceed L(x)2 . Then n has a squarefree divisor d satisfying x/L(x)13 < d ≤ x/L(x)3 .

(20)

(For let m = the largest squarefree divisor of n. Then x/L(x)3 < m ≤ x. We have some d|m with x/L(x)13 < d ≤ x/L(x)3 . But d is squarefree and d|n.) As in (13), we have from Lemma 3 that n ≡ 0 (mod d),

n+1≡0

(mod ed ),

(d, ed ) = 1.

(21)

Therefore the number of such n is at most x 1+ ded

X  ′



≤ x/L(x) + x

X



X 1 X 1 1 ′ = x/L(x) + x , ded m ed =m d m≤x

where ′ means the sum is over squarefree d in the range (20). By Theorem 1, and a partial summation argument, the inner sum is at most P



exp − log x

2 + log3 x 3 log2 x



14

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

uniformly in m, provided x is sufficiently large. Therefore, the number of n in class (vii) is at most 

x · exp − log x

1 + log3 x 3 log2 x



(22)

for large x. Summing the estimates for each of the classes gives the theorem.

4

2

Lucas pseudoprimes

The proof of the bound for L(x) will be similar to the proof for E(x). First we will need a few facts about Lucas pseudoprimes. See [1] for proofs. Let ωp denote the rank of apparition of p in the Lucas sequence Uk ; i.e., the least positive k for which p|Uk . Then if (p, 2D) = 1, we have ωp |(p − ǫ(p)), where we recall that ǫ(p) = (D|p). Further, ωpk |pk−1 ωp , and for any m with (m, 2D) = 1, we have ωm = lcm{ωpk : pk k m}. If (m, 2D) = 1 then m|Uk if and only if ωm |k. Also, let α and β be the distinct roots of x2 − P x + Q = 0. Then for k ≥ 0, αk − β k . (23) Uk = α−β We are now ready to prove: Theorem 3 There is an x0 = x0 (P, Q) such that if n is a natural number and x ≥ x0 then 

#{m ≤ x : ωm = n} ≤ x · exp − log x

3 + log3 x . 2 log2 x 

Proof: As in Theorem 1, we may assume that n < x3/2 . In fact, if the set in the theorem is not empty, it is possible to show that n ≪ x log log x. Let c = 1−(4+log 3 x)/(2 log 2 x), and let x be large enough that c ≥ 7/8. Then X

m≤x ωm =n

1 ≤ xc

X

ωm =n

m−c ≤ xc

X

p|m⇒ωp |n

m−c = xc

Y

(1 − p−c )−1 = xc A,

ωp |n

15

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes say. As before, it suffices to show log A = o(log x/ log2 x).

(24)

Since c ≥ 7/8, we have log A =

X

p−c + O(1) =

p−c + O(1).

X X

d|n ωp =d

ωp |n

The primes p with ωp = d are divisors of Ud , which is O(max{|α|, |β|}d ) by (23), so there are at most O(d) of them. Call them q1 , q2 , . . . , qt , where 0 ≤ t ≤ δd, for some constant δ depending only on P and Q. Those p with p|2D contribute at most O(1) to log A, so we may assume the primes qi do not divide 2D. Thus each qi ≡ ±1 (mod d), so X

p

−c

=

t X

qi−c

i=1

ωp =d



t X

−c

2(kd)

k=1

−c

≤ 2d

[δd] X

k=1

k−c ≪ (1 − c)−1 d1−2c .

(25)

Thus, log A ≪ (1 − c)−1

d1−2c < (1 − c)−1

X d|n

(1 − p1−2c )−1 .

Y p|n

(26)

Since 1 − 2c ≤ −3/4, we have (1 − p1−2c )−1 =

X

where x is large enough that

Q

log

Y p|n

log

p≤2 log x p

(1 − p1−2c )−1 ≪

Y p|n

p|n

p1−2c + O(1) ≤

X

p≤2 log x

≥ x3/2 . This implies

log2 x (log x)2−2c ≪ . (2 − 2c) log2 x log3 x

Thus, if x is sufficiently large, we have (1 − p1−2c )−1 ≤ (log x)1/2 ,

Y p|n

and with (26) we get log A ≪ which is o(log x/ log2 x).

2

p1−2c + O(1),

log2 x (log x)1/2 log3 x

(27)

16

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

Theorem 4 For all sufficiently large x, depending on the choice of P, Q, the number of Lucas pseudoprimes up to x is at most x L(x)−1/2 . Proof: As in Theorem 2, we will divide the Lucas pseudoprimes n ≤ x into several possibly overlapping classes: (i) n ≤ x L(x)−1 , (ii) there is a prime p|n with ωp ≤ L(x), p > L(x)3 , (iii) there is a prime p|n with ωp > L(x) and ǫ(p) = ǫ(n), (iv) there is a prime p|n with ωp > L(x) and ǫ(p) 6= ǫ(n), (v) n > x L(x)−1 and every prime p|n is at most L(x)3 . Clearly, the number of n in class (i) is at most x L(x)−1 . The number of primes p with ωp ≤ L(x) is X

X

m≤L(x) ωp =m

1≪

X

m < L(x)2 .

m≤L(x)

Therefore the number of Lucas pseudoprimes in class (ii) is at most X

x/p < x L(x)−3

X

ωp ≤L(x)

p>L(x)3

1 ≪ x L(x)−1 .

(28)

ωp ≤L(x)

If p is a prime dividing a Lucas pseudoprime n, we have n ≡ 0 (mod p),

n − ǫ(n) ≡ 0

(mod ωp ),

(p, ωp ) = 1.

(29)

For a fixed p, the numbers n ≤ x that satisfy (29) can be split into two cases: those with ǫ(n) = ǫ(p) and those with ǫ(n) = −ǫ(p). In the first case, n = p is a solution to (29), but is not a Lucas pseudoprime. Thus corresponding to a prime p in class (iii) there are at most x/(pωp ) Lucas pseudoprimes n ≤ x. We conclude that the number of Lucas pseudoprimes in class (iii) is at most X

p≤x ωp >L(x)

x log2 x x ≪ . pωp L(x)

(30)

17

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes Suppose p, n are as in class (iv) and n = kp. From (29) we have ǫ(n) ≡ n = kp ≡ kǫ(p)

(mod ωp ),

so that k ≡ −1 (mod ωp ). The number of k ≤ x/p with k ≡ −1 (mod ωp ) is exactly " # (x/p) + 1 , ωp so the number of Lucas pseudoprimes in class (iv) is at most x 1 + pωp ωp

X

p≤x

!



x log2 x . L(x)

(31)

ωp >L(x)

Every n in class (v) has a divisor d with x/L(x)4 < d ≤ x/L(x).

(32)

As in (29), we have n≡0

(mod d),

n − ǫ(n) ≡ 0 (mod ωd ),

(d, ωd ) = 1,

(33)

so that n is in one of two residue classes (mod dωd ), depending on whether ǫ(n) = 1 or −1. Therefore the number of n in class (v) is at most 2

X  ′

x 1+ dωd



≤ 2x/L(x) + x

X



X 2 X 1 2 ′ = 2x/L(x) + x , dωd m d ω =m m≤x d

where ′ means the sum is over d in the range (32). By Theorem 3, and a partial summation argument, the inner sum is at most P

2 + log3 x exp − log x 2 log2 x 



uniformly in m, provided x is sufficiently large. Therefore, the number of n in class (v) is at most 

x · exp − log x

1 + log3 x 2 log2 x



(34)

for large x. Each of the classes has o(x L(x)−1/2 ) Lucas pseudoprimes, which proves the theorem. 2

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

18

References [1] R. Baillie and S.S. Wagstaff, Jr., Lucas pseudoprimes, Math. Comp. 35 (1980), pp. 1391-1417. [2] R. Balasubramanian and M. Ram Murty, Elliptic pseudoprimes, II, Seminaire de Theorie des nombres, Paris 1988-89, ed. C. Goldstein, Birkha¨ user-Verlag, to appear. [3] E.R. Berlekamp, Factoring polynomials over large finite fields, Math. Comp., 24 (1970), pp. 713-735. [4] G. Cornacchia, Su di un metodo per la risoluzione in numeri interi P dell’ equazione nh=0 Ch xn−h y h = P , Giornale di Mathematiche di Battaglini, 46 (1908), pp. 33-90. [5] P. Erd¨os, P. Kiss and A. S´ ark¨ozy, A lower bound for the counting function of Lucas pseudoprimes, Math. Comp. 41 (1988), pp. 315-323. [6] D.M. Gordon, Pseudoprimes on elliptic curves, Math. Comp. 52 (1989), pp. 231-245 [7] R. Gupta and M. Ram Murty, Primitive points on elliptic curves, Compositio Mathematica 58 (1986), pp. 13-44. [8] G.H. Hardy and E.M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, Fourth edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1965. [9] B.W. Jones, The Arithmetic Theory of Quadratic Forms, Mathematical Association of America, Baltimore, 1950. [10] S. Lang, Elliptic Curves: Diophantine Analysis, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1978. [11] H.W. Lenstra, Jr., Elliptic curves and number-theoretic algorithms, Proc. Int. Congress Math. (Berkeley, 1986), American Mathematical Society, Providence, 1987, pp. 99-120. [12] C. Pomerance, On the distribution of pseudoprimes, Math. Comp. 37 (1981), pp. 587-593. [13] C. Pomerance, A new lower bound for the pseudoprime counting function, Illinois J. Math. 26 (1982), pp. 4-9.

Lucas and elliptic pseudoprimes

19

[14] C. Pomerance, Two methods in elementary analytic number theory, Number Theory and Applications, ed. R.A. Mollin, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, 1989, pp. 135-161. [15] R. Schoof, Elliptic curves over finite fields and the computation of square roots mod p, Math. Comp. 44 (1985), pp. 483-494. [16] M. Ward, Memoir on elliptic divisibility sequences, Amer. J. Math., 70 (1948), pp. 31-74. Department of Computer Science University of Georgia Athens, GA 30602 and Department of Mathematics University of Georgia Athens, GA 30602

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