Survey on multiobjective evolutionary and real coded genetic algorithms M.M. Raghuwanshi1and O.G. Kakde2 Rajiv Gandhi College of Engineering, Research and Technology, Chandrapur. (M.S.), Pin: 442403, India. Email: [email protected] Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology Nagpur. (M.S.), India. Email: [email protected] Abstract Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) possesses several characteristics that are desirable to solve realworld optimization problems up to a required level of satisfaction. Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithms (MOEAs) are designed with regard to two common goals, fast and reliable convergence to the Pareto set and a good distribution of solutions along the front. Virtually each algorithm represents a unique combination of specific techniques to achieve these goals. Handling continuous search space with binary coded genetic algorithm has several difficulties. Real coded genetic algorithm represents parameters without coding, which makes representation of the solutions very close to the natural formulation of many problems. In real coded GA (RCGA) recombination and mutation operators are designed to work with real parameters. This survey gives state-of–the-art of multiobjective evolutionary algorithms and real coded genetic algorithms.

1.

Introduction

Real-world optimization problems often involve a number of characteristics, which make them difficult to solve up to a required level of satisfaction. Those characteristics are (Deb (2004)) • Existence of mixed type of variables (such as Boolean, discrete, integer and real). • Existence of non-linear constraints. • Existence of multiple conflicting objectives. • Existence of multiple optimum (local and global) solutions. • Existence of stochasticities and uncertainties in describing the optimization problem. EAs are randomized search algorithms inspired by principles of natural genetics. Evolutionary algorithm (EA) possesses several characteristics that are desirable for type of problems stated above and makes them preferable to classical optimization methods. John Holland, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, first conceived the concept of genetic algorithm. The doctoral study on vector evaluated genetic algorithm (VEGA) by Dave Schaffer in 1984 (Schaffer, 1985) and Goldberg’s suggestion for the use of non-dominated sorting along with a niching mechanism (Goldberg, 1989) generated an overwhelming interest on multiobjective evolutionary algorithms (MOEAs). Nowadays Genetic Algorithms (GA)

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and Evolution Strategies (ES) are used as baseline algorithms in most of the multiobjective optimization problems. The two fundamental goals in MOEA design are guiding the search towards the Pareto set and keeping a diverse set of non-dominated solutions. It is also important to achieve these goals in a computationally fast manner. The first generation of MOEA was characterized by use of selection mechanism based on Pareto ranking. Fitness sharing was the most common approach to maintain diversity of the same. The second generation of MOEA can be characterized by an emphasis on efficiency and by the use of elitism. This generation also addresses the issue of test problems and different metrics to measure performance of MOEA. Attempts are made to develop theoretical foundation of MOEA. MOEA literature contains number of survey articles describing the state-of-the-art (Van, 2000, Carlos, 2000, Carlos, 2003, Zitzler, Laumanns and Bleuler, 2004). In Real-coded GA, decision variables are used directly (without coding) to form chromosome-like structure. Chromosome represents a solution and population is a collection of such solutions. The operators (selection, recombination and mutation) modify the population of the solution to create new (and hopefully better) population. Real coded GA requires a special recombination and mutation operators. This paper gives an overview of MOEA and real coded GA. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 summarizes basic principles of multiobjective optimization. Section 3 gives overview of MOEA and generic population-based algorithm-generator for optimization. Section 4 focuses on algorithm design issues and presents concepts and techniques that have been developed to deal with the additional complexity caused by multiple objectives. Section 5 is on real coded GA i.e. properties of recombination operators, commonly used mutation operators, self-adaptation and popular steady state GAs etc. Paper concludes with challenges as future tasks.

2.

Multiobjective optimization problem

The Multiobjective Optimization problem in its general form can be described as follows: m=1,2,…..,M; Minimize/Maximize fm(x), j=1,2,…..,J; Subjected to gj(x)≥0, hk(x)=0, k=1,2,…..,K; (L) (u) xi ≤ xi ≥ xi , i=1,2,…...,n. A solution x ∈ X that satisfy all the (J+K) constraints and all of the 2N variable bounds stated above is called feasible solution. X ⊆ F⊆ S ⊆ ℝn, where F is a feasible region in search space S. Objective space Z=f (X) is the image of the decision space X under the objective function f. The superiority (or dominance) of one solution over the other cannot be established with many objectives in mind. Objective vectors are compared according to the dominance relation defined below •

Definition 1 (Dominance relation): x, y ∈ ℝn then x is said to dominate y, denoted as x ≻ y iff xi ≥ yi for ∀i and ∃j: xj > yj.



Definition 2 (Pareto set): Let F ⊆ ℝn be a set of vectors. Then the Pareto set F* ⊆ F is defined as F*={x ∈ F | ∄ y ∈ F: y ≻ x}.

Vectors in F* are called Pareto vectors of F. For given set F, the set F* is unique. Moreover, for a given set F, the set F* is of substantial size.

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In the search space non-dominated solutions are known as Pareto-optimal solutions. The curve joining these solutions is known as a Pareto-optimal front. There are two goals in a multiobjective optimization: To find a set of solutions as close as possible to the Paretooptimal front and to find a set of solutions as diverse (or non-dominated) as possible. When decision space is very large or the objective functions are very complex, it might be difficult or even impossible to find Pareto optimal set in reasonable time. The aim in such cases is to find at least a good approximation of the true Pareto optimal set of reasonable size. Decision maker can use this set to determine interesting regions of the decision and objective space. Next we define generalization of dominance relation. (Laumanns, 2003) •

Definition 3 (ε-Dominance): x, y ∈ ℝ+n then x is said to ε-dominate y for some ε >0, denoted as x ≻ε y iff



(1+ ε )xi ≥ yi for ∀i .

Definition 4 (ε- approximate Pareto set): Let F ⊆ ℝ+n be a set of vectors and ε >0. Then a set Fε ⊆ F is called an ε- approximate Pareto set, if any vector x ∈ F is εdominated by at least one vector y ∈ Fε i.e ∀ x ∈ F : ∃ y ∈Fε such that y ≻ε x.

The set Fε is not unique. It has been shown that under certain assumptions there is always set Fε that is polynomial in size, dependent on the approximation factor ε. •

Definition 5 (ε- Pareto set): Let F ⊆ ℝ+n be a set of vectors and ε >0. Then a set Fε* ⊆ F is called an ε-Pareto set of F, if Fε* is an ε- approximate Pareto set of F, i.e. Fε* ∈ Pε (F), and

Fε* contains Pareto points of F only i.e. Fε* ⊆ F*. In addition to converging close to the true Pareto-optimal front, solutions must also be sparsely spaced in the Pareto-optimal region. Only a diverse set of solutions assures a good set of trade-off solutions among objectives. An efficient multiobjective optimization algorithm must work on satisfying both of them.

3.

Multiobjective evolutionary algorithm (MOEA)

3.1 Overview EAs are population-based algorithms. EA begins its search with a population of guess solutions. Thereafter, in all iterations the population is updated by using a population-update algorithm. Let us assume that the algorithm at iteration t has a set of solutions B(t)(with N= B(t)| ). At the end of each iteration, this set is updated to a new set B(t+1) by using user-defined plans. A generic population-based algorithm-generator for optimization is (Deb, 2003) Population-based-Optimization-algorithm (SP, GP, RP, UP) • Step 1 Choose µ solutions (the set P) from B using selection plan (SP). • Step 2 Create λ solutions (the set C) from P using generational plan (GP). • Step 3 Choose a set of r solutions (the set R) from B for replacement using a replacement plan (RP). • Step 4 Update these r members by r solutions chosen from a comparison set of R, P and C using an update plan (UP). Note that for brevity the superscript denoting the iteration counter is dropped from the sets. In first step, selection plan (SP) for choosing µ solutions must emphasize the better solutions of B. A set of µ solutions can be chosen either by directly emphasizing the better solutions in - 152 -

B or by de-emphasizing the worst solutions of B. In the second step, λ new solutions are created from the chosen set P by using generation plan GP. In the third step, r solutions are chosen from the solution bank B for replacement. Here, different replacement plans are possible. The RP can simply choose r solutions at random or include some or all members of P to ensure diversity preservation. The RP can also pick a set of bad solutions from B to constitute a faster search. In the fourth step, the r chosen members are updated by r members chosen from R, P and C by using update plan (UP). It is intuitive that the UP must emphasize the better solutions of R P C in this step. However, the r slots can also be updated directly from members of C alone or from a combined population R C or P C. In the former case, the population update algorithm does not have the elite-preserving property. To really ensure elite-preservation, the RP should choose the best solutions of B and a combined P and C sets needs to be considered in Step 4.

3.2 Generational and steady-state EA Generational EA and steady-state EA are two strategies for reproducing the population members in EA. In generational EA, in each iteration, a complete set of N new offspring solutions are created. For preserving elite solutions, both the parent and the offspring populations are compared and the best N solutions are retained. In terms of algorithmgenerator, the four plans are described below. SP: Choose µ solutions from B using selection operator GP: Create λ solutions from µ solutions using recombination and mutation operators. Above two steps are performed iteratively till N offspring solutions (the set C) are generated RP: set R=B. UP: set B with the best N solutions of B C. For steady-state EA the four plans are as follows SP: Choose µ solutions (the set P) from B. GP: Create the offspring set C from P. Solutions in set C, may or may not be created iteratively, from set P using operators. RP: Choose r solutions (the set R) from B. UP: Update these r members by r solutions chosen from a comparison set of R, P and C. The term generation gap is used to describe the size of the population overlap in steady state. The selection pressure is more in steady-state EA but its memory requirement is less as compare to generational EA. Steady-state EA having small population size normally looses diversity very fast and large population size increases the cost of computation and slow down the speed of convergence.

4.

MOEA design issues

The issues in MOEA design are guiding the search towards the Pareto set and keeping a diverse set of non-dominated solutions. It is also important to archive these two goals in a computationally fast manner. The first issue is assigning scalar fitness values to solution in the presence of multiple optimization criteria, the second concerns with generating diversified solutions. Finally, a third issue that addresses both of the goals of MOEA is elitism (Zitzler, Laumanns and Bleuler, 2004).

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4.1 Fitness assignment There are various strategies for fitness assignment. The aggregation-based strategy, aggregate the objectives into a single parameterized objective e.g. weighted-sum aggregation. Criterionbased methods switch between the objectives during the selection phase. Each time an individual have chosen for reproduction, potentially a different objective will decide which member of the population will be copied into the mating pool. Pareto dominance based methods use different approaches like dominance rank, dominance depth and dominance count. The dominance rank is the number of individuals by which certain individual is dominated. In dominance depth, the population is divided into several fronts and the depth reflects the front to which an individual belongs. The dominance count is the number of individuals dominated by a certain individual.

4.2 Diversity preservation Most MOEAs try to maintain diversity within the current Pareto set approximation by incorporating density information into the selection process: Greater the density of neighbouring individuals reduces the chance of being selected for a certain individual. The categories for techniques in statistical density estimation classify the methods used in MOEAs. Kernel methods define the neighbourhood of a point in terms of a so-called Kernel function K that takes the distance to another point as an argument. In practice, for each individual the distances di to all other individuals i are calculated and after applying K the resulting values K(di) are summed up. The sum of the K function values represents the density estimate for the individual. Fitness sharing is the most popular technique of this type within the field of evolutionary computation, which is used, e.g., in MOGA (Fonseca and Fleming, 1993) NSGA (Srinivas and Deb, 1994) and NPGA (Horn, Nafploitis and Goldberg, 1994). In nearest neighbour techniques, the distance of a given point to its kth nearest neighbour accounts to estimate the density in its neighbourhood. Usually, the estimator is a function of the inverse of this distance. SPEA2 (Zitzler, Laumanns and Thiele, 2001), for instance, calculates the distance of each individual to the kth nearest individual and adds the reciprocal value to the raw fitness value (fitness is to be minimized). Histograms define a third category of density estimators that use a hypergrid to define neighbourhoods within the space. The density around an individual is simply estimated by the number of individuals in the same box of the grid. The hypergrid can be fixed, though it is adapted usually with regard to the current population as, e.g., in Pareto archived evolution strategy (PAES) (Knowles and Corne, 1999). In ε-dominance concept (Laumanns, 2003), the search space is divided into a number of grids (or hyper-boxes) and the diversity is maintained by ensuring that a grid or hyper-box can be occupied by only one solution.

4.3 Elitism Elitism is a technique to preserve and use previously found best solutions in subsequent generations of EA. In an elitist EA, the statistic of the population’s best solutions cannot degrade with generation. Maintaining archives of non-dominated solutions is an important issue. The final contents of archive represent (usually) the result returned by optimization process. It is common (and highly effective) to employ archive as a pool from which to guide the generation of new solutions. Some algorithms use solutions in the archive exclusively for this purpose, while others tend to rely on the archive to varying degrees according to parameter settings. The computational complexity of maintaining the archive (checking for non-dominance of newly generated solutions) suggests bounded and relatively modest size for archive (Knowles and Corne, 2004). Knowles and Corne also proposed following properties for archive produced by archiving algorithm: - 154 -

P1: A= A*, A is a archive and A* is a Pareto set of archive P2: |A| ≤ N P3: ∃t∀u >0, A(t+u) = A(t) i.e. the archive converges to a stable set in the limit of t P4: A ⊆ F*, i.e. the archive contains only Pareto optimal points from the sequence set generated by solution generating process, F P5: all extremal Pareto optimal points from F are in A P6: S ≃ min (N, |F*|), i.e. that the archive is ‘as close as possible’ to N or the number of Pareto optimal points |F*| P7: for every point in F* there is a point in A that is ‘nearby’. Adaptive ε- approximation algorithm, LTDZ1 and adaptive grid algorithm (AGA) are two of the practical archiving algorithms. Following is a review of some of the MOEAs implement elitism. i. Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II)(Deb, Pratap, Agarwal and Meyarivan (2001)): The NSGAII carries out a non-dominated sorting of a combined parent and offspring population. Thereafter, starting from the best non-dominated solutions, each front is accepted until all population slots are filled. This makes an algorithm an elitist type. For the solution of last allowed front, a crowded distance-based niching strategy is used to resolve which solutions are carried over to new population. In clustered - NSGAII (C-NSGA-II) (Deb, Mohan and Mishra, 2003), clustering technique is used for maintaining the diversity among the elite population members. ii. Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm (SPEA)(Zitzler and Thiele, 1999): The SPEA maintains a separate elite population that contains the fixed number of nondominated solutions found till the current generation. The elite population participates in the genetic operation and influences the fitness assignment procedure. A clustering technique is used to control the size of the elite set, thereby indirectly maintaining the diversity among the elite population members. SPEA2 is a successor of SPEA and has three main differences: (1) it uses fine-grained fitness assignment strategy, which incorporates density information. (2) It uses nearest neighbour estimation technique and density estimation technique, which guide the search more efficiently. (3) It has an enhanced archive truncation method that guarantees the preservation of boundary solutions. iii. Pareto Archived Evolutionary Strategy (PAES) (Knowles and Corne, 1999): PAES uses evolutionary strategy (ES) as the baseline algorithm. Using an (1+1)-ES, the offspring is compared with the parent solution for a place in an elite population. Deterministically dividing the search space into number of grids and restricting the maximum number of occupants in each grid. The ‘plus’ strategy and continuous update of an elite population with better solutions ensures elitism.

5

Real-coded genetic algorithms (RCGA)

In real-coded genetic algorithm (RCGA), a solution is directly represented as a vector of realparameter decision variables, representation of the solutions very close to the natural formulation of many problems. The use of real-parameter makes it possible to use large domains (even unknown domains) for variables. Capacity to exploit the graduality of the functions with continuous variables is another advantage. Every good GA needs to balance the extent of exploration of information obtained up until the current generation through recombination and mutation operators with the extent of exploitation through the selection - 155 -

operator. If the solutions obtained are exploited too much, premature convergence is expected. On the other hand, if too much stress is given on a search (i.e. exploration), the information obtained thus far has not been used properly. Therefore, the solution time may be enormous and the search exhibits a similar behaviour to that of a random search. The issue of exploration and exploitation makes a recombination and mutation operator dependent on the chosen selection operator for successful GA run.

5.1 Recombination operators The recombination (or crossover) operation is a method for sharing information between chromosomes. The recombination operator is the main search operator in the GA. The detailed study of many recombination and mutation operators can be found elsewhere (Deb, 2002, Herrera, Lozano and Verdegay, 1998). Recombination operator in real-coded (realparameter) GA directly manipulates two or more parents to generate one or more offspring. Beyer and Deb proposed that a recombination operator must have the following two properties: (Beyer and Deb, 2001) 1. Population’s mean decision variable vector should remain the same before and after the recombination operation. 2. Variance of the intra-member distances must increase due to the application of the recombination operator. Since the recombination operator does not use any fitness function information explicitly, the first argument makes sense. The second argument comes from the realization that selection operator has a tendency to reduce the population variance. Thus, the recombination operator to maintain adequate diversity in the population must increase the population variance. In mean-centric recombination, offspring are produced near the centroid of the participating parents. In parent-centric recombination, offspring are created near the parents by assigning each parent an equal probability of creating offspring in its neighbourhood. Crossover operators such as unimodal normal distribution crossover (UNDX)(Ono and Kobayashi, 1997), simplex crossover (SPX)(Tsutsui, Yamamura and Higuchi, 1999) and blend crossover (BLX)(Eshelman and Schaffer, 1993) are mean-centric operators. Whereas the simulated binary crossover (SBX)(Deb and Agrawal, 1995) and parent-centric recombination operator (PCX)(Deb and Joshi, 2002) are parent-centric operators. Fig 1, 2, 3 shows distribution of offspring solutions with three parents for UNDX, SPX and PCX operators. In gene level crossover, crossover is variable-by-variable and in chromosome level crossover, crossover is vector-wise. SBX, BLX are gene level crossover operators whereas UNDX, PCX and SPX are chromosome level crossover operators. Gene level crossover is closer to natural recombination processes.

(a)

(b) Figure1. UNDX, SPX and PCX

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(c)

5.1.1

Simulated binary crossover (SBX) operator

First a random number ui between 0 and 1 is created. From a specified probability distribution function, the ordinate βqi is found so that the area under the probability curve from 0 to βqi is equal to the chosen random number ui. The probability distribution used to create a child solution is derived to have a similar search power as that in a single-point crossover in binary-coded GAs and is given as follows : ⎧ ⎪⎪ 0.5(η +1) β iη P( β ) = ⎨ 1 ⎪ β η +2 ⎪⎩ 0.5(η +1) i

if β ≤1 i

(1)

otherwise

In the above expressions, the distribution index η gives a higher probability for creating near parent solutions as a small value of η allows distant solutions to be selected as children solutions. Using equation (1), βqi is calculated by equating the area under the probability curve to ui, as follows: ⎧ 1 ⎪ ⎪⎪ ( 2u )η +1 βqi = ⎨ i 1 ⎪ ⎡⎢ 1 ⎤⎥η +1 ⎪ ⎢ 2(1−u ) ⎥ ⎥ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣⎢ i ⎦⎥

if u ≤0.5 i

(2)

Otherwise

After obtaining βqi from the above probability distribution, the children solutions are calculated as follows:

[

yi = 0.5 (1 + βqi ) xi + (1 − βqi ) xi 1

5.1.2

1

2

]

[

yi = 0.5 (1 − βqi ) xi + (1 + βqi ) xi 2

1

2

].

(3)

Mean-centric recombination

In the unimodal normal distribution crossover UNDX, (µ-1) parents x(i) are randomly chosen and their mean g is computed. From this mean, (µ-1) direction vectors d(i) =x(i) – g(i) are formed. Let the direction consines be e(i) = d(i) / | d(i) | Thereafter, from another randomly chosen parent x(µ), the length D of the vector (x(µ) – g ) orthogonal to all e(i) is computed. Let e(j) (for j=µ,….,n, where n is the size of the variable vector x ) be the orthonormal basis of the subspace orthogonal to the subspace spanned by all e(i) for i=1,….,(µ -1). Then, the offspring is created as follows: µ −1

y=g+

∑ω i =1

(i)

i

|d |e

(i)

+

n

∑µ υ D i

e(i)

(4)

i=

Where ω i and υ i are zero-mean normally distributed variables with variances σ2ξ and σ2η , respectively. The SPX operator also creates offspring around the mean, but restricts them within a predefined region (in a simplex similar but λ = µ + 1 times bigger than the parent simplex). A distinguishing aspect of SPX from UNDX operator is that the SPX assigns a uniform probability distribution for creating any solution in a restricted region (called the simplex).

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5.1.3 Parent-centric recombination (PCX) The mean vector g of the chosen µ parents is computed. For each offspring, one parent x(p) is chosen with equal probability. The direction vector d(p) = x(p) - g is calculated. Thereafter, from each of the other (µ-1) parents perpendicular distances Di to the line d(p) are computed and their average D is found. The offspring is created as follows: y = xp + wξ | d(p) | +

µ

∑ ωη D

e(i)

(5)

i =1,i ≠ p

Where e(i) are the (µ-1) orthonormal bases that span the subspace perpendicular to d(p). The parameters ωξ and ωη are zero-mean normally distributed variables with variance σ2ξ and σ2η, respectively.

5.2 Mutation operators The role of mutation in GA is to restore lost or unexpected genetic material into a population to prevent the premature convergence of GA to sub-optimal solutions; it ensures that the probability of reaching any point in the search space is never zero. Some of the commonly used mutation operators are described as follows: 5.2.1 Non-uniform mutation Here, the probability of creating a solution closer to the parent is more then the probability of creating one away from it. However, as the generations (t) proceed, this probability of creating solution closer to the parent gets higher and higher

y

(1,t +1) i

=

x

(1,t +1)

i

(u )

( L)

(

(1−t / t max ) b

+ τ ( xi − xi ) 1 − r i

).

(6)

Here, τ takes a Boolean value, -1 to 1, each with a probability of 0.5. The parameter tmax is the maximum number of allowed generations, while b is a user-defined parameter. xi(L) is lower bound & xi(u) is upper bound for xi and ri is a random number in[0,1]. 5.2.2 Normally distributed mutation

y

(1,t +1) i

=

x

(1,t +1)

i

+ N (o, σ i ).

(7)

Here, the parameter σi is a fixed, user-defined parameter. This parameter is important and must be correctly set in a problem. Such a parameter can also be adaptively charged in every generation by some predefined rule. 5.2.3

Polynomial mutation

y

(1,t +1) i

=

x

(1,t +1)

i

(u ) ( L) r + ( xi − xi )δ i ,

(8)

Where the parameter δi is calculated from the polynomial probability distribution

Ρ(δ ) = 0.5(η m + 1)(1− | δ |ηm

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(9)

⎧ (2ri )1 /(ηm +1) − 1, δi = ⎨ 1 /(η m +1) , ⎩1 − [2(1 − ri )]

If ri < 0.5 (10) If ri >= 0.5

5.3 Self-adaptation Self-adaptation is a phenomenon, which makes evolutionary search algorithms flexible and close to natural evolution. Any good search algorithm must explore large search space in the beginning and the search should then narrow down as it converges to the solution. If more than one parent are used in the perturbation process, the range of perturbation may be adaptive and can be determined from the diversity of the parents on the fly. In self-adaptive recombination operators the extent of perturbation is controlled at run time. In RCGA it is possible to achieve self-adaptive behaviour with specialized recombination operators in which the span of children solutions is proportional to the span of parent solutions. SBX, BLX and UNDX operators have been investigated for self-adaptive behaviour. For handling bounded decision variables, special care must be taken to ensure that no solution is created outside the specified lower and upper limits (that is in infeasible solution space).

5.4 Generational and steady-state GA The BLX, SBX and fuzzy recombination operators are used with generational RCGA. The normally distributed mutation operator, uniform mutation operator and polynomial mutation operator are used along with a recombination operator. In NSGA-II, polynomial mutation operator is used with recombination operator SBX. Following is a review of some of the steady-state GAs. i. Minimum Generation Gap (MGG) Model: Satoh, Yamamura and Kobayashi (1996) proposed this GA. In the context of algorithm-generator, MGG model can be describe as follows. SP: This uses uniform probability for choosing any solution from B. In total, choose µ solutions (the set P) from B. GP: A real-parameter recombination operator (such as SPX or UNDX) is applied to the set P as λ times to create the offspring set C. RP: R is a set by choosing two solutions from B at random. Thus r=|R|=2. UP: Here, one solution in R is replaced by the best of C and other by using a roulette-wheel selection on the set C∪R ii.

Generalized Generation Gap (G3) Model (Deb and Joshi, 2002): The MGG model is modified to make it computationally faster by replacing the roulette-wheel selection with a block selection of the best two solutions. This model also preserves elite solutions from the previous iteration. In the terms of algorithm-generator, G3 model can be described as follows. SP: The best parent and the (µ-1) other random solutions are picked from B. GP: Create λ offspring solutions from P using any recombination scheme (PCX, UNDX, SPX, or others). RP: Set R with r random solutions from B.

UP: From the combined set C∪R, choose r best solutions and put them in R’. Update B as B: =(B\R) ∪R’. iii.

ε-MOEA (Deb, Mohan and Mishra, 2003): Deb et al proposed this algorithm. It is a steady state MOEA developed based on the concept of ε–dominance. The search space is divided into number of grids (or hyper-boxes) and the diversity is maintained by - 159 -

ensuring the grid or hyper-box can occupy by only one solution. This algorithm maintains two co-evolving populations: an EA population B(t) and an archive population E(t). In terms of algorithm-generator, this algorithm can be described as follows. SP: Select one solution (p) from B using dominance criterion and other solution (e) from E (either randomly or in reference with p). P={p,e}. GP: A real-parameter recombination operator is applied to the set P as λ times to create the offspring set C. RP & UP: Each member of C for its inclusion in E is compared with all members in E for ε–dominance. Each member of C for its inclusion in B is compared with all members in E using Pareto dominance.

6.

Future studies

This survey suggests a number of tasks which are outline in the following: 1. Metric to measure exploration power of recombination operator used in real-coded GA. 2. Use of more efficient data structures to store non-dominated vectors. 3. Self-adaptive mutation operator for real-coded GA. 4. Study on why when and how multi-parent recombination works better than two parent recombination. 5. The effect of gene-level crossover and chromosome-level crossover on the performance of GA. 6. The study of the influence of the selective pressure of the selection mechanism on the performance of crossover operator. 7. Other probability distribution, such as lognormal probability distribution in place of polynomial probability can be investigated in SBX operator.

7.

Conclusion

This paper has provided a general view of the MOEA and RCGA and provides a historical analysis of the development of these areas. We discussed various methods and theory on MOEA. EAs are modelled in algorithm-generator to describe their functioning. Basic principles of multiobjective optimization and EA are presented and various algorithmic concepts such as fitness assignment, diversity preservation and elitism are discussed. In the context of RCGA various recombination operators, their properties, self-adaptation and bound controls are discussed. At the end, some of the steady-state algorithms used for optimization are presented in algorithm-generator format.

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