2010 12th International Conference on Frontiers in Handwriting Recognition

Strategies for Training Robust Neural Network Based Digit Recognizers on Unbalanced Data Sets Szil´ard Vajda, Gernot A. Fink TU Dortmund Department of Computer Science Dortmund, Germany {szilard.vajda,gernot.fink}@udo.edu

in modern machine learning theory is to find solutions to improve the classifiers performances in those cases when one of the classes is relatively underrepresented (smaller) compared to the others. The unbalanced data set problem appears in many realworld applications like text categorization [5], fault detection [3], fraud detection, oil-spills detection in satellite images [6], toxicology, cultural modeling [7], medical diagnosis [6], [8] etc. In general, normal examples which constitute the majority class are overrepresented, while the real focus for specific texts snippets, faults, frauds or high toxicity materials is represented just by a few samples. Despite their low frequency (appearance) in the data, those underrepresented class samples constitute the main target in the classification processes, as it is generally more important to correctly classify the minority class instances instead of the majority ones. In industrial applications mispredicting a rare event can have more serious consequences than predicting some normal events. For example, as stated by Seyda et al. [5], the prediction of cancerous cells detection can lead to additional tests if non-cancerous cells are misclassified but the misclassification of cancerous cells as being healthy ones can lead to very serious health risks. Similar issues are raised when in a surveillance video stream scenario intrusions should be detected. The mistagging of a normal video sequence may result in increased security but an erroneous labeling for a life threatening event can have disastrous consequences. Due to this effect caused by the influence on learning of the majority class over the underrepresented class samples in a neural network (NN) learning framework, we propose two strategies to overcome this anomaly by equilibrating the numerical gaps between the classes using a selection strategy based on the notion of cluster density proposed by Ester et al. [9] and a sampling based on kernel density estimation [1]. This work is organized as follows: Section 2 gives you an idea about the unbalanced data paradigm and different attempts proposed by the researchers in the last decade to overcome the side effect caused in the learning process by this issue. Section 3 describes in detail the proposed solutions to select the most representative samples and the

Abstract—The performance of a neural network in a pattern recognition task may be influenced by several factors. One of these factors is related to the considerable difference between the number of examples belonging to each class to be recognized. The effect called imbalanced data can negatively influence the ability of a recognizer to learn the concept of the minority class. In this work we propose an undersampling strategy based on selecting samples lying around the decision surface and an over-sampling strategy which uses kernel density estimation to populate the minority class. The experimental results on Roman and Bangla digit data using a neural network based recognizer confirm the effectiveness of the proposed solutions. Keywords-unbalanced data; kernel density estimation; digit recognition;

I. I NTRODUCTION Supervised learning in a neural framework is the automatic process of adjusting the weights of the model considering a set of samples, called training set, which belongs to different classes. In more formal terms, let us denote by D = {(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . , (xn , yn )} a training set where xi ∈ Rq and yi ∈ {C1 , C2 , . . . , CM } is a discrete set of labels, n denotes the number of samples in the corpus, q is the input space dimension, M stands for the number of classes, while Ci is the corresponding class label (i = 1..M ). The training of such a feed-forward neural classifier consists of a series of forward-propagations and retropropagations, respectively of different elements (xi , yi ) ∈ D until the classifier is able to predict with a certain accuracy the class label yk ∈ {C1 , C2 , . . . , CM } of a given input pattern xk ∈ Rq , (xk , yk ) ∈ / D [1]. One of the main bottlenecks for the classifier during the training process is the sample distribution of classes. A data set is called imbalanced if it contains many more samples from one class than from the rest of the classes. Imbalanced datasets affect the performances of classification algorithms [2], [3]. Such a side-effect is quite common for classifiers like decision trees or multilayer perceptrons [2], [4] that optimize the overall accuracy without considering the relative distribution of each class [5]. Therefore, a main challenge 978-0-7695-4221-8/10 $26.00 © 2010 IEEE DOI 10.1109/ICFHR.2010.30

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strategy to oversample the minority class using a kernel density estimator. Section 4 describes the dataset used in the experiments, the different synthetic data creation processes and the results achieved by the proposed method. Finally, Section 5 highlights the conclusions of this work. II. T HE UNBALANCED DATASET PROBLEM Learning concepts from unbalanced datasets is a challenging task in modern machine learning theory since most learning systems are not designed to cope with large variations among the class representatives coming from different classes. The interest of studying such a paradigm is twofold. First, it is a scientific challenge for the researchers to get around this deficiency, while second, there is an intensive need for such solutions in real-world applications.

(a) Unbalanced data

(b) Balanced data

Figure 1. The decision surface for (a) unbalanced data and (b) balanced data considering a 2-class problem

has its advantages and drawbacks. While the internal solution may work properly in some cases as it is adapted to a given classifier, it may not function when the algorithm should be transfered to another learning task. The later one, on the other hand, based on sampling differently the available data is not classifier dependent, thus it is more reliable and robust. The most common sampling strategies applied in this field are the random minority oversampling (ROS) and the random majority under sampling (RUS). In ROS the samples belonging to the minority class are randomly duplicated in order to equilibrate the sample distribution over the classes, while in case of RUS the samples are randomly selected from the majority class and then the rest of samples discarded from the data [2], [3]. To discard the randomness in the selection criteria, Kubat and Matwin [6] propose the one-sided selection (OSS), where instead of randomly discarding samples from the majority class, a selection criterion is set based on selecting the noise and redundant samples. A similar selection strategy called Wilson-editing is proposed by Barandela et al. [13], where all the samples belonging to the majority class that are misclassified with a kNN method (k = 3) are discarded from the training. We concentrate our efforts also toward these sampling procedures in order to preserve the generic aspect of the solutions.

A. Why unbalanced dataset problem influences machine learning? The unbalanced dataset problem, as stated before, has a peculiarity, namely the distribution of the different samples belonging to different classes is not equal and huge disproportions can be observed between the classes. In several applications like diagnosis of rare diseases, spotting anomalies in bank transactions, faults in materials, etc. such kind of detection is mandatory and people expect high precision solutions in this matter. Why it is challenging to learn under such conditions? Imagine a scenario depicted in Figure 1. The goal is to separate two dimensional points marked with blue and red colors. The classifier performing the separation is a perceptron. While in the first case (c.f. Figure 1(b)), the decision surface can be observed in the middle of the two classes, in the second case, - when unbalanced data is considered - a radical modification can be observed due to the minority class (Figure1(a)). Theoretical proofs show that a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) approximates a posterior Bayesian probability which is dependent on the a priori class probability of the data [10]. Therefore, as stated by many researchers [2], [3], [5] difficulties occur with unbalanced datasets. This gap between the theory and practice is due to some ideal assumptions made in the theoretical field such as: the availability of infinite number of samples for training, the network complexity being high enough [11], kind of assumptions which do not hold in practice.

III. M ETHODOLOGY The solutions proposed by us to deal with the unbalanced dataset problem are based on intelligent selection of the data. The first method based on down-sampling the majority classes is based on data selection lying near to the boundaries while the second solution is an over-sampling technique relying on kernel density estimation based also on the available data samples.

B. Balancing the unbalanced The unbalanced issue has been addressed by many researchers considering different classifiers, data setups and conditions. The strategies can be either internal ones [5], [11], [12], where new algorithms or modifications of existing ones are proposed to cope with unbalanced data learning or external strategies [2], [6], [8], [10], where the focus is not on the algorithm but rather on the data sampling. Each approach

A. The density-based selection (DBS) Looking at the points in the Figure 2, we can easily distinguish the different clusters. This is due to the fact that within each cluster we have a typical density of points which is considerably higher than outside the cluster. This

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B. Kernel density estimation based sampling (KDEBS)

Figure 2.

In contrast to the DBS method, where the overrepresented classes were analyzed based on their spatial representation in the feature space and particular samples were selected, KDEBS is totally the opposite way of acting to eliminate the unbalanced effect. Instead of down-sampling, we propose a method to over-sample the poorly represented class. Kernel density estimators belong to a class of estimators called non-parametric density estimators. In comparison to parametric estimators where the estimator has a fixed functional structure and the parameters of this function are the only information we need to store, non-parametric estimators have no fixed structure and depend upon all the data points to reach an estimate. More formally, kernel estimators smooth out the contribution of each observed data point over a local neighborhood of that data point. If x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ∈ Rq are independent and identically distributed samples of a random variable, then the kernel density approximation of its probability density function is described as

Data clusters with the extreme points

idea has been exploited by the DBSCAN algorithm [9] to cluster noisy data. Our strategy is also based on this presumption, namely, the samples that lie at the margins of the clusters have less similarly labeled neighbors, so probably they are closer to the hyperplanes that separate the different class samples. Let us denote by β-neighborhood of a point (xi , yi ) ∈ Dn the Nβ (xi , yi ) = {(xj , yj ) ∈ Dn |dist(xi , xj ) < β, i 6= j}, where dist()˙ is the Euclidean distance. Considering the βneighborhood of a point, we define the notion of (xi , yi ) is density reachable from (xj , yj ) if (xi , yi ) ∈ Nβ (xj , yj )), |Nβ (xj , yj )| ≥ Pmin , where yi = yj and Pmin is the minimal number of identically labeled points which should be around point xi . The proposed data selection process is based on the β-neighborhood of a point. We select into the reduced dataset all the points (belonging to the majority classes) which are not density reachable considering a given number of neighbors k. The k parameter controls the degree of the data reduction. These points will be at the boundaries of the different classes. If the training can deal with these ”boundary data”, there is no more need to train the samples which are inside the clusters. Once the samples are ordered based on the number of their similar neighbors, we select those t samples which are suffering the most lack of having similarly labeled neighbors. The parameter t controls the size of the newly created data. In our case, t is equal to the cardinality (size) of the minority class. Each majority class is reduced to a size equal to the minority class, providing an equal representation of the classes in the newly created balanced dataset. Several novelties can be spotted in this method. While instead of selecting the data randomly, a rigorous selection is proposed, not only based on a minimal distance but on data density as well. Instead of selecting the data inside the clusters as proposed in [6], [13] we select those ”extreme cases” which constitute the possible borders among the different classes.

m

fh (x) =

1 X kx − xi k K( ). mh i=1 h

(1)

The function K is some kernel, h is a smoothing parameter, also called bandwidth and m is the number of available patterns. The contribution of data point xi to the estimate at some point x depends on how far apart xi and x are. For our purpose we have considered as kernel function K, the standard Gaussian function. Using this kernel (K), Eq. 1 can be rewritten as follows: m

fh (x) =

1 kx−xi k 2 1 X 1 √ q e− 2 ( h ) . m i=1 (h 2π)

(2)

Here, the parameter q denotes the data dimension (notation similar as in Section I). As in off-line digit recognition we are dealing with image-based data, the different components of the data are highly correlated. Therefore, we used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (cf. [1]) in order to transform the data into an approximately decorrelated representation. Additionally, instead of the variance parameter h in 2, which is the same for all components of the feature representation, we used a diagonal covariance matrix. In order to properly estimate the local variances we applied a clustering on the PCA-based data representation. For this purpose we clustered the samples of all majority classes using K-means. The number of clusters we choose to be identical to the number of samples in the minority class. Once the probability density function has been estimated an equal number of new samples was generated for each data point belonging to the under-represented class. The outcome

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networks were set based on the datasets. The number of units in the input layer corresponds to the dimension of the input space, while the number of output units is the same as the number of classes to be separated. For the original digit data we considered a 784-500-10 topology [16]. For the reduced data (cf. Section III-B) a 80-40-10 topology was designed, also based on different trial runs. D. Results In order to provide a direct comparison between balanced and unbalanced data, first we report the scores achieved using the same systems (NNs) considering balanced data. In our case for that purpose we used the MNIST and the ISI data as they are originally. For MNIST data 1.41% and 3.68% error rates have been achieved considering 784 and 80 features (PCs), respectively. For ISI data, the error rates were 5.65% and 9.82% considering similar conditions. Table I. and Table II. show the results (error rates) of the DBS and KDEBS methods on the MNIST and the ISI digit data, respectively. While the others in the field handle mainly just two-class problems, we address here a multiclass scenario, where one class is underrepresented, while all the rest (remaining 9 classes) are equally distributed. All the results are reported considering 10 class problems, each time one class is subsampled while the remaining nine other classes are the original data. For each generated dataset (cf. Section IV-B) 5 different runs were executed. For MNIST and ISI data a total number of 100 dataset was considered. The tables show the average results (error rates) achieved considering the unbalanced data (cf. Unb.[%]) and the average scores produced by the balancing methods (cf. DBD [%] and KDEBS [%], respectively) proposed in this paper. In the KDEBS method (cf. Table I. and Table II.), due to the considerable information loss after the PCA reduction, we generated the new samples in this sub-space, but the training was performed on the reconstructed images. Based on different trial runs we fixed the number of Principal Components (PCs) to be 80, reducing substantially the input space from the original 784, representing the pixel values of the image data considered initially in our experiments. The average results reported for the DBS method show an improvement of 1.15% and 1.17%, respectively. In other terms, the DBS method is able to select those samples which can really contribute to the learning process by reducing radically the number of samples in the other (overrepresented) classes, hence the training time is also considerably reduced. The results achieved by the KDEBS method on MNIST and ISI are more impressive. The error reduction of 1.98% and 2.33% for the MNIST and the ISI data respectively, shows the importance of the balancing in this neural framework. While the DBS method down-samples the existing data, the KDEBS over-samples the data. The implant of new information in the

Figure 3. Sampling digits from a Pdf. The images have been transformed to the PCA space, new samples have been estimated using kernel density estimation and the results have been transformed back to image space

(transformed back to the image space) of such a sampling process is depicted in Figure 3. IV. E XPERIMENTS AND RESULTS A. Data description The experiments were performed using several datasets. The MNIST data set [14] originally contains 60, 000 and 10, 000 normalized handwritten digit data for training and testing, respectively. The ISI-Bengali handwritten digit data [15] contains 19,391 and 4,000 for training and testing. All data in these datasets are gray-valued 28 × 28 pixel images and equally distributed in ten classes. B. Unbalanced data design As stated by Vajda et al. [16] in real-world applications like postal document recognition there are specific digit and word samples which do not occur frequently. In order to overcome this drawback, they considered extra samples coming from specially designed forms. To simulate such an unbalanced data set, we considered the following scenarios. We reduced only one class from the possible ten to 80%, 50%, 30%, 10% and 1% and the rest of the classes were untouched. We realized that the reduction to 1% shows the side-effect caused by the imbalanced data. Using this strategy, we created 10 unbalanced data sets. All our experiments are perfomed on such artificially created unbalanced data. For the MNIST data the reduction will be 58-67 elements (belonging to the minority class) versus 5, 842-6, 742, while for the ISI data 19 elements should compete with 1, 9231, 956 elements belonging to the majority classes. C. Network setup For the experiments, we considered a fully connected multilayer perceptron with sigmoid transfer function. Conventional error back-propagation minimizing a squared error metric was considered to train the network. The topologies of the

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Table I MNIST ERROR SCORES FOR DBS WITH ONE CLASS DOWN - SAMPLED TO 1% USING 784 FEATURES MNIST Cl. ”0” Cl. ”1” Cl. ”2” Cl. ”3” Cl. ”4” Cl. ”5” Cl. ”6” Cl. ”7” Cl. ”8” Cl. ”9” Avg.

Unb. [%] 4.70 4.25 7.49 7.2 8.79 8.07 5.21 5.90 8.85 8.31 6.87

DBS [%] 4.63 4.63 6.41 5.53 5.48 5.88 5.10 5.71 6.77 7.07 5.72

Table III MNIST ERROR RATES FOR KDEBS WITH ONE CLASS DOWN - SAMPLED TO 1% USING 80 PCA FEATURES

KDEBS [%] 4.28 3.46 5.25 5.04 5.13 4.21 4.39 4.89 6.02 6.3 4.89

MNIST Cl. ”0” Cl. ”1” Cl. ”2” Cl. ”3” Cl. ”4” Cl. ”5” Cl. ”6” Cl. ”7” Cl. ”8” Cl. ”9” Avg.

Unb.[%] 10.35 10.45 11.00 14.10 10.47 13.97 13.90 12.27 13.65 13.20 12.33

DBS [%] 10.3 10.95 10.10 11.62 10.00 10.57 11.52 14.03 9.40 12.07 11.15

KDEBS [%] 7.11 6.77 8.67 8.71 9.49 11.29 8.51 10.15 9.31 11.81 9.18

Table IV ISI ERROR RATES FOR KDEBS WITH ONE CLASS DOWN SAMPLED TO 1% USING 80 PCA FEATURES

Table II ISI ERROR RATES FOR DBS WITH ONE CLASS DOWN - SAMPLED TO 1% USING 784 FEATURES ISI Cl. ”0” Cl. ”1” Cl. ”2” Cl. ”3” Cl. ”4” Cl. ”5” Cl. ”6” Cl. ”7” Cl. ”8” Cl. ”9” Avg.

Unb. [%] 7.28 8.92 9.72 10.91 10.78 11.88 10.72 9.24 9.86 11.16 10.04

ISI Cl. ”0” Cl. ”1” Cl. ”2” Cl. ”3” Cl. ”4” Cl. ”5” Cl. ”6” Cl. ”7” Cl. ”8” Cl. ”9” Avg.

KDEBS [%] 8.95 9.85 9.33 10.20 10.18 10.15 10.35 10.40 9.00 11.65 10.00

Unb. [%] 11.20 14.35 11.97 15.90 11.63 15.00 15.40 11.33 12.25 14.45 13.34

KDEBS [%] 10.05 13.03 11.12 15.25 10.01 15.08 14.65 10.85 11.35 14.23 12.56

realistic data sampling process could be drawn out of the method.

system by preserving the existing one proves the efficiency of the later. As the KDEBS method uses a lower dimensional data representation in order to be able to randomly generate useful samples, one could easily come to the conclusion to use this data representation also for training the neuronal network classifier. However, as can be seen from the results presented in Table III and Table IV (for MNIST and ISI data, respectively) this results in a significant loss in performance even though the KDEBS method is able to slightly improve the results compared to the unbalanced case. This effect can be explained as follows: Though KDEBS always uses the lower-dimensional PCA space to generate new samples, reducing all the data to this sub-space causes an observable information loss. When performing this step for the minority classes only and leaving the remaining data untouched (see Table I and II), is is beneficial as otherwise the KDEBS oversampling scheme would not work properly. However, when transforming also the data from the majority classes to the PCA sub-space the overall modeling quality is significantly reduced. An ideal up-sampling procedure would try to estimate the kernel density function from the original data considering a large enough set for that purpose. However, such a presumption is not realistic in practice due to the unbalanced effect. The more precise density estimation is given, the more

V. C ONCLUSION In this paper we proposed two different external methods to tackle the imbalanced dataset problem in a neural network based recognition system. First, instead of using random selection for the underrepresented class, we propose a downsampling mechanism based on the idea of selecting just those samples lying on the margins of the classes as those examples really contribute to the estimation of the hyper planes estimated by the neural framework. Second, the other solution is the opposite of the first one and here an oversampling technique based on kernel density estimation was proposed. The advantage of these methods is their adaptability to the data. No thresholds are necessary and the methods work in a completely data-driven manner. The experiments conducted on different benchmark digit data show the effectiveness of these methods. The relative reduction of the error rate with 19.90% and 29.93% for the MNIST and ISI data, respectively, demonstrates the usefullness of these methods in real-life applications like postal address recognition or bank check recognition, which strongly rely on the digit recognizer’s accuracy. The primary experiments conducted on handwritten digits are promising, so we will explore similar strategies in word

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recognition. In this field unbalanced data sets can be more frequently observed, hence a balancing solution would be helpful to improve recognition performance.

[8] J. Zhang and I. Mani, “kNN approach to unbalanced data distribution: A case study involving information extraction,” in ICML, 2003.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

[9] M. Ester, H.-p. Kriegel, S. J¨org, and X. Xu, “A density-based algorithm for discovering clusters in large spatial databases with noise,” in International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, 1996, pp. 226–231.

This work has been supported by the German Research Foundation (DFG) within project Fi799/3. R EFERENCES

[10] G. E. A. P. A. Batista, A. C. P. L. F. de Carvalho, and M. C. Monard, “Applying one-sided selection to unbalanced datasets,” in MICAI, 2000, pp. 315–325.

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