Sophomore Curriculum Guide Sophomore English 32-42 Writing Intensive
THE SOPHOMORE PROGRAM SOPHOMORE ENGLISH 3242 EN3S03 Length: 2 semesters Credit: 2 credits Open to Grades:
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This course focuses on close reading of literature as a point of departure for persuasive and critical writing, emphasizing multiparagraph essays, development, organization, and usage. The essays which the students read will serve as models for their compositions. In addition, the course includes the systematic study of vocabulary and usage, each of which is integrated into their writing. Throughout the year, students are introduced to a variety of literary terminology.
Grade Weight: III Prerequisite: Freshman English and teacher recommendation; in the case of transfer students, counselor recommendation is needed
District 219 Niles Township High Schools Niles North & Niles West Skokie, Illinois Prepared by: Kim Barker, West Heather Ingraham, North Renee Scott, North Directors: Sanlida Cheng Roger Stein Revision Date: August 2009
ENGLISH PROGRAM SEQUENCES Pathways illustrate typical movement within a sequence of courses; however, adjustments in sequence can be made to accommodate individual needs. Grade Weight Level is indicated in parentheses.
Freshman Year
Sophomore Year
Junior Year
Senior Year
Freshman English 13-23 (II) With (West) or W/out Reading 1-2 (II)
Soph. English 33-43 (II) With or Without Reading 1-2 (II)
Freshman English 12-22 (III)
Intro. to ALCUSH (II & III) Intro. to Amer Lit. & Composition (II)
Senior English (II)
With Reading 1-2 (II) ALCUSH (III) Soph. English 32-42 (III)
Freshman English 12-22 (III)
American Lit. & Composition (III)
Honors ALCUSH (IV) Freshman English 11-21 Honors (IV)
Soph. English 31-41 Honors (IV)
American Lit. & Comp. Honors (IV)
College Preparatory English (III)
College Preparatory English Honors (IV) AP English (V)
AP Great American Writers (V)
Electives (semester courses) Freshman – Senior Year Journalism (III) Photojournalism & Publications* (III) Creative Writing (III) Public Speaking (III) Advanced Public Speaking (IV) Newspaper Production* (IV) Yearbook Production* (IV)
Sophomore – Senior Year Images in Literature (III) Lit. of Sports & Amer. Culture (III) Lit. of Peace & Non-Violence (III) Bible & Mythology (IV) World Literature (III or IV) English Composition & Rhetoric (III)
Junior-Senior Year Lit. of Moral Conflict(IV) Humanities 1* (III) Humanities 2* (III)
• These courses do not carry English elective credit but will count as a general elective credit.
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Instructional Materials Books Speak Winesburg, Ohio I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Tale of Two Cities Lord of the Flies Animal Farm 1984 This Boy’s Life A Doll’s House Member of the Wedding All My Sons Julius Caesar Othello Book of Poetry 2 Great Expectations The Collector Cry, the Beloved Country The Street True Notebooks Inherit the Wind The Prose Reader Vocabulary Workshop Level D Vocabulary for the College Bound Student The Least You Need to Know about English Word Within the Word, Selected Roots Warriner’s English Grammar and Composition
North X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
West X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X
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Agreed-Upon Elements Types of Assessments Writing Assessments: • narrative • in-class essays • multi-draft essays • portfolio • reading quizzes • objective tests and quizzes • argument of fact Grammar Emphases: • commonly confused words • comma usage • tense consistency • agreement • punctuation • colon and semicolon usage • parallelism • active voice • concise writing Writing and Research Emphases: • Plagiarism Prevention • Process writing • Timed writing • Claim/evidence/ warrant • See appendix for research Listening and Speaking: • Orally sharing communication in large and small groups • Effective listening skills Literary Terms: see appendix
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Thematic Units Following are the thematic units covered in the sophomore year: Semester One 1. Individuality and Relationships 2. Power and Responsibility Semester Two 3. Trust and Betrayal 4. Conflict and Choice Ongoing Skills Taught Both Semesters 5. Writing 6. Research Skills 7. Vocabulary 8. Grammar
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Student Learning Targets (Predicated, in part, on the ACT College-Readiness Standards) Over-arching Reading Target Students critically read and derive meaning from a variety of texts. Sub-targets • Identify the author’s main idea or purpose. • Locate supporting details in a passage. • Use appropriate textual evidence to make accurate inferences and conclusions. • Determine the meaning of unfamiliar words through context. • Identify cause/effect relationships. • Identify the sequence of events in a passage. • Identify how the author uses language to convey meaning. • Identify examples of literary terms in a passage. (Terms are listed by semester on the reverse side.) • Identify how a passage exemplifies literary themes, genres, and rhetorical strategies (e.g. ethos, logos, pathos). Over-arching Writing Target Students write for a variety of purposes and audiences, conveying their intended message and meaning. Sub-targets • Express a clear thesis, point of view, theme, or unifying event. (focus) • Support writing with context and evidence. (support) • Unify thesis and evidence with clear analysis (elaboration) • Structure writing that demonstrates a clear, logical flow of ideas. (organization) • Use varied sentence structure and vocabulary to express voice. (language facility) • Use standard written English. (usage) Research Sub-targets are shown by semester in parentheses. • Correct citations per MLA guidelines. (1) • Based on a hypothetical scenario or thesis statement, select the most credible source to support a claim. (2) • Identify bias in a variety of sources. (2) Literary Terms • Match literary terms to their definitions. (See list on reverse side.) Commonly Confused Words • Differentiate between pairs of commonly confused words in context. (Pairs are listed by semester on the reverse side.) Over-arching Usage/Editing Target Students edit sentences using Standard English conventions. Sub-targets—shown by semesters in parentheses: • Punctuate sentences correctly using commas. (1 & 2). See reverse side for exact breakdown. • Maintain tense consistency. (1) • Maintain indefinite pronoun/verb agreement. (1) • Maintains agreement between pronoun and antecedent. (1) • Correct punctuation of possessive words. (1) • Edit sentences to maintain parallelism. (2) • Punctuate sentences correctly using colons and semicolons (2). • Identify active voice as preferable to passive voice. (2) • Eliminate unnecessary words to maintain concise writing. (parsimony) (2)
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Literary Terms Semester 1 figurative language figure of speech Foil irony (rhetorical, situational, dramatic) Mood
Commonly Confused Words Semester 1 lead/led passes/past piece/peace principal/principle are/or/our* clothes/cloths*
Semester 2 alliteration apostrophe aside blank verse couplet foot free verse Iambic pentameter meter monologue onomatopoeia oxymoron paradox rhyme rhyme scheme soliloquy sonnet stanza symbol
Both Semesters allusion connotation hyperbole image metaphor motif personification simile theme tone satire* parody*
Semester 2 moral/morale personal/personnel through/threw weather/whether woman/women
Both Semesters loose/lose quite/ quiet right/write than/then there/they’re/their two/to/too were/where who’s/whose you’re/your accept/except* have/of* it’s/its*
*31-41 Honors only
*Re-integrated from freshman year
Comma Rules Semester 1 Before for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so when they connect two independent clauses To separate three or more items in a series.
After an introductory expression (word, phrase or dependent clause) or before a comment or question tagged to the end. With direct quotations.
Semester 2 + Review of Semester 1 Around the name of a person spoken to. Around expressions that interrupt the flow of a sentence (e.g. however, moreover, therefore, of course, by the way, on the other hand) Around additional information that is not needed in a sentence.
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UNITS OF INSTRUCTION Essential Questions for Semester One Theme 1: Individuality and Relationships • How do we determine our self-identity and personality? • Why do we form relationships with others? What is the purpose? • How do we change in the presence of different settings and/or groups of people? • Why do we form cliques with other people? • How do our relationships with our parents and families change as we get older? • How do our relationships with our friends and peers change as we get older? • How does our self-image influence our relationships with others? • Why do we value some relationships over others? • Why do some relationships end? Theme 2: Power and Responsibility • What is power? Where does power come from? • What powers do you have over your own life and environment? • What powers do your parents and family have over you? • What powers do your society and government have over you? • Do we all desire power? When do we recognize this desire? • How is it possible to control one’s use of power? • What are some positive and negative consequences of being in charge? • What is responsibility? • For whom are we responsible (other than ourselves)? • Do we have a responsibility to our parents and families? • Do we have a responsibility to those who are less privileged than ourselves? • Why do people in power need to be responsible?
Suggested Readings for Semester One Genre Novels:
Drama:
Essays and
Author and Title • Anderson, Speak (West only) • Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio (North Only) • Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (North only) • Dickens, Tale of Two Cities • Golding, Lord of the Flies • Orwell, Animal Farm (West only) • Orwell, 1984 (West only) • Wolff, This Boy’s Life (North only) • Ibsen, A Doll’s House • McCullers, Member of the Wedding • Miller, All My Sons • Shakespeare, Julius Caesar All short selections can be found in The Prose Reader 7th Edition unless otherwise noted by the asterisk. 8
Short Fiction:
Poetry: Film:
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Bukowski, Excerpt from Ham on Rye * Chan, “You’re Short, Besides!” Cisneros, “Only Daughter” Ehrenreich, “The Ecstasy of War” Krents, “Darkness at Noon” Ramirez, “The Barrio” Sawaquat, “For My Indian Daughter” Tan, “Mother Tongue” Wozencraft, “Notes from the Country Club” Bradbury. “The Veldt” and “There Will Come Soft Rains” * Jackson, “The Lottery” * LeGuin, “The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas” * Vonnegut, “Harrison Bergeron” * Langone, “Group Violence” from previous ed. Prose Reader * Mathabane, “Passport to Knowledge” from previous ed. Prose Reader * Nilssen, “Sexism in English” from previous ed. Prose Reader * • Roberts, “How to Say Nothing in 500 Words” from previous ed. Prose Reader * • Mohr, “The Wrong Lunch Line” from Coming of Age in America * • Schwartz, “Where is it Written?” from Coming of Age in America * Selected poetry from Book of Poetry 2 and other resources
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
Bowling For Columbine Dead Poets Society All My Sons Animal Farm A Few Good Men Do The Right Thing Good Night, and Good Luck Lord of the Flies
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The Lottery The Majestic The Manchurian Candidate 1984 A State of Mind V for Vendetta Wall Street
Acceptable Evidence for Semester One • • • • • • • •
Graphic Organizers Journals and reader’s response sheets Reading quizzes Objective tests and quizzes Multi-draft essays In-class essays In-class discussions Organizational tool: binder, notebook, portfolio
Sample Writing Prompts for Semester One 1. Define what you think a good friendship is. Describe what qualities are necessary in order to have a good friendship, and use specific examples to illustrate these qualities. You may use personal examples. 2. Define what you think a good marriage (or family) is. Describe what qualities are necessary in order to have a good marriage (or family), and use specific examples to illustrate these qualities. You may use personal examples. 3. To what extent do you derive your identity from your association with a particular group? How do you alter your behavior when you are with different groups? With whom do you feel that you are acting the closest to your “true self”? Why? 4. What do you have power over in your environment, and why? What do you not have power over in your environment, and why? How do you think the power you have will change in the next five years? 5. Write about a time that you were given a considerable amount of power, and consequently of responsibility. With what choices were you faced? 6. How much responsibility do you as a sophomore have over your own education? To what degree are you influenced by your parents, friends, teachers, counselors, extracurricular involvement, the courses that are (not) available to you, the school district, and your own goals and beliefs? 7. Write about a time that you were stereotyped by someone else. Why were you stereotyped? Did the stereotype confer or limit your power? What effect did the stereotype have on you, as well as on the person using it? How did you respond to being stereotyped? What did you or the other person learn from the experience? 8. Many people have claimed that people are the “products of their environment.” Support or refute this claim by analyzing two characters from our reading. To what extent does the character have or lack control over his/her environment? Over him or herself? What factors contribute to this control or lack of it? Why do people from similar backgrounds often have such different levels of responsibility? 9. Choose two characters from our reading who mean to use power responsibly, but do not succeed in doing so. What factors cause this misuse of power? What are the effects of this misuse of power? To what extent is the misuse a conscious or unconscious decision? Discuss whether or not a lack of intentional abuse is grounds for excusing the misuse. 10. Consider how characters in our readings that have been stereotyped. Choose two situations from our readings and show how stereotypes can confer or limit power. Who is being stereotyped? Who is doing the stereotyping? What effect does the stereotype have on both individuals and the larger social group? Does the stereotype confer power or limit power? 10
Essential Questions for Semester Two Theme 3: Trust and Betrayal • What is trust? • What factors cause us to trust someone? • What factors cause us to stop trusting someone? • Whom do we trust, and why? Whom do we mistrust, and why? • How can someone regain our trust after it has been lost? • What is betrayal? • In what ways can another person betray us? • How do we react to betrayal? • Under what circumstances might betrayal of another person be necessary? • Under what circumstances might betrayal of one’s social community be necessary? Theme 4: Conflict and Choice • What is conflict? • What causes conflict? • What types of conflict are common in our lives? • How do we react to conflict in our lives? • Is conflict inevitable in life? • How are the individual and society in conflict? • Is the conflict between individual and society inevitable? • Which is more devastating, internal or external conflict? • What is choice? • What choices do we have control over in our own lives? • What choices do we not have control over in our own lives? • What choices do we have when we experience a conflict? • How do our choices in life affect our families, friends, and communities?
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Suggested Readings for Semester Two Genre Novels:
Drama:
Essays and Short Fiction:
Poetry: Film:
Author and Title • Anderson, Winesburg, Ohio (North Only) • Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (North only) • Dickens, Great Expectations • Dickens, Tale of Two Cities • Fowles, The Collector (West only) • Paton, Cry, the Beloved Country • Petry, The Street (West only) • Salzman, True Notebooks (North only) • Lawrence and Lee, Inherit the Wind • Shakespeare, Julius Caesar • Shakespeare, Othello All short selections can be found in The Prose Reader 7th Edition unless otherwise noted by the asterisk. • Angelou, “New Directions” • Goodman, “A Working Community” • Heat-Moon, “Red, White, and Blue Highways” • Ouchi, “Japanese and American Workers” • Rodriguez, “Fear of Losing A Culture” • Staples, “A Brother’s Murder” • Steinem, “The Politics of Muscle” • Viorst, “The Truth About Lying” • Gregory, “Shame” * • McCourt, Excerpt from ’Tis * • Salzman, Excerpt from Iron and Silk * • Staples, “Just Walk on By” * Selected poetry from Book of Poetry 2 and other resources • • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
A Dry White Season Blackboard Jungle Bob Roberts Cleopatra The Commitments Hero Inherit the Wind
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Julius Caesar Manchurian Candidate Master Harold and the Boys One Hour Photo Othello Parallax View Swimming Upstream
Acceptable Evidence for Semester Two • • • • • • • •
Graphic Organizers Journals and reader’s response sheets Reading quizzes Objective tests and quizzes Multi-draft essays In-class essays In-class discussions Organizational tool: binder, notebook, portfolio
Sample Writing Prompts for Semester Two 1. Describe a personal situation in which issues of loyalty and betrayal were raised. How did the situation develop? Describe the confrontation. How was it resolved? 2. Write about a time when loyalty to yourself (beliefs, goals, and so on) came into conflict with a different loyalty about which you felt strongly (religion, culture, parents, etc.) 3. What characteristics determine whether or not you will trust someone? Give an example of someone whom you trust, along with someone whom you do not trust. Consider why you do or do not trust each person. 4. Choose three betrayals from our readings and rank the betrayals from least to most harmful. Consider in your ranking the relationship between the characters involved, the characters’ motives, and the consequences – intended and unintended – of the betrayal. 5. If the distortion of language is a form of betrayal, choose characters in two different works who manipulate others through language. Compare and contrast what is said, what is implied, and what results from the messages. How is this strategy tailored to the strengths of the speaker and the vulnerabilities of the victim? 6. Using characters from two or more works, demonstrate how loyalty can be both a strength and a weakness. For each character, cite two examples: one in which the loyalty can be interpreted as a strength, and one in which it can be interpreted as a weakness. Determine the overall value of the character’s loyalty: is the object of loyalty worthwhile? What is the outcome of this loyalty? 7. Describe a conflict that you had with school, family, friends, or culture. Why did the conflict occur? How did it affect you? How did it affect other people? What values were at stake in the conflict? Which side prevailed, and why? 8. How does conflict affect personality? For instance, can conflict make you more compassionate, flexible, and aware – or does it make you bitter, distrustful, and disillusioned? Choose one incident in which you faced a serious conflict and reflect on how the experience changed you, positively and/or negatively. 9. Most people make decisions based on what they think will be a positive outcome. In our readings, however, some of the characters have made disappointing choices. Choose two such characters and explain why they made poor choices. What would have helped the character to make a better choice? 10. According to William Golding, “the shape of a society must depend on the ethical nature of the individual.” First, explain Golding’s quotation. Second, apply Golding’s ideas to our readings. Consider whether it is possible to be loyal to society without first being loyal to oneself. Cite at least one instance from each work in which a character’s loyalty to himself conflicts with his loyalty to society. Explain why this conflict exists and comment on the way the character chooses to resolve the conflict. 13
ONGOING UNITS Lessons on writing, research, vocabulary, and grammar will be taught throughout the school year on an ongoing basis. Writing • Claim/evidence/ warrant • Process writing using multiple drafts • Timed writing using in-class essays • Plagiarism prevention • Research skills (see research project below and in appendix) Research • The instructor will incorporate a research project into a suitable unit from Themes 1-4. The research project in the pages that follow applies to Inherit the Wind, though similar research projects could be taught with other pieces of literature to fulfill the sophomore research component. Vocabulary Vocabulary: •
Vocabulary Workshop, Level D or Vocabulary for the College Bound Student (W) Word within the Word (N) Vocabulary words chosen from texts studied in class Instructors will incorporate the study of vocabulary into classroom instruction through the school year. Suggested classroom activities include workbook exercises, as well as sentence writing, expository writing, narrative writing, and theater skits that incorporate vocabulary words into the writing.
Grammar Grammar: • •
Warriner’s English Grammar and Composition, Fourth Course, Blue (W) The Least You Should Know about English (N) Instructors will incorporate the study of grammar into classroom instruction throughout the school year. Suggested classroom activities include workbook exercises, sentence writing, and essay writing focusing on skills related to grammar and mechanics. Areas of Study Sophomore Year: • Parts of a sentence: independent and subordinate clauses • Sentence combining techniques • Sentence variety and style • Punctuation: commas, semicolons, colons • Parallelism in a series • Pronoun issues: pronoun agreement and indefinite pronouns • Possessives • Reinforcement of Skills Covered Freshman Year: • Sentence construction • Comma splices • Subject verb agreement • Tense consistency • Commonly confused words 14
• •
Sentence combining Subordination
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT DESCRIPTION A CRT including multiple choice questions and an essay component will be used for the summative assessment at the end of both semesters. Summative assessment must show how students are progressing toward displaying knowledge of the course learning targets. LXR print-outs (e.g. item analysis) will be analyzed by teachers and the directors to improve performance in subsequent years.
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Appendices
Units of Instruction - Grammar/Writing/Research
Grammar Emphasis
GRADE 9
GRADE 10
GRADE 12
Sentence Variety
GRADE 11 Economy, Clarify, ACT
Sentence Construction * Parts of Sentences
* Sentence combining
Review
Research Paper
(subject, predicate,
(to teach colons, semicolons,
* Stylistic elements
in/dependent clauses,
variety, etc.)
(tone, voice, syntax, diction)
phrases/sentence fragments)
* More sophisticated
* Comma Splices
subordination
* Sentence combining
(run-on sentences)
* Pronoun/antecedent
(for economy and
* Subject/verb agreement
* Tense consistency
clarity)
* Tense consistency
(present, past[imperfect,
* ACT review exercises
(present, past, future)
perfect, pluperfect] future)
* Commonly confused
* Parallelism in a series
words (they're/their/there,
* Possessives
its/it's, etc.)
* Indefinite Pronouns
* Sentence combining
(pronoun/verb agreement;
(to teach parts of speech/
e.g. someone is there)
sentences. Prep phrases too)
* Discourage Passive Voice
Refinement and Senior
* Subordination Writing Emphasis
Semester I
1 ICE per Marking Period
2 ICE's per Marking Period
Note: Assessment
3 pieces of Narrative Writing
(6 total by year-end)
12 total by year-end)
Rubric for
−creation myth
By second semester prompts
−College Essay Writing
State of Illinois:
−character sketch (god teach)
without prior class time
(12 total by year-end) Prompts not given before
Focus
−narrative (end of childhood
devoted to prep.
hand.
−Writing a letter
Organization,
Persuasive Writing
1 OCE (out of class essay)
OPTIONAL 1 OCE per
Senior Research Paper
Conventions,
−focus on claims & evidence
per marking period. (6
semester (Max 2 for
Integration
−Reading responses −single paragraph or short
total by year-end) Prompts can still be
the year) OCE's diminish in
Essays
Generated by the teacher
importance here
Preparing for the Future
−Building a Resume
Support/Elaboration,
(9.3. agree or disagree with
because it's a
Semester II
the following:) Emphasis
big test year and kids
Three ICE's (in class essays)
on warrants, introducing
have a better
−can be reading responses
quotes in context,
handle on manipulating
−can be fully prepped; i.e.
transitional phrases.
the internet.
outline, notes, book
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1 ICE per marking period
Research
Recognize and use of the
Generate and defend a thesis indendently and
Generate and defend a thesis
Use a more sophisticated
Emphasis
(hypo)thesis, its purpose and
based on an inquiry
independent of teacher
approach to creating and
Note terminology:
placement. Find date to
given by the teacher
prompt. Reinforcement of
suppporting an argumentative
Claim,
support an accepted
Evaluate date from
10th grade with added
thesis. Reinforcement of
Evidence and
generalization given by the
opposing viewpoints.
emphasis on using data
11th grade with added
Warrant
teacher. Seek data that is
Evaluate internet
but researching opposing
emphasis on more
reliable, current and
sources.
viewpoints and refuting
sophisticated sources:
authoritative. Recognize
them. Search for
literary criticism; university
bias. Use internet sources
and use of primary
publications; non-reliance
which are "hard copy" i.e.
source materials.
NY Times Skills: (from Research Manual)
on pamphlets or encyclopedias.
Skills: (from Research Manual)
Skills: (from Research Manual)
Skills: (from Research Manual) alternatives to quote cards
selecting sources
citing Quotations
conducting Interviews
Bibliography
paraphrasing
formatting a Research
quote cards
evaluating Sources
Paper
(i.e. Research logs) finding Literary Criticism
quotation basics
literary Criticism
(i.e. title page, first page,
developing an original thesis
outlining
finding Literary Criticism/
Works cited page…)
statement
MLA parenthetical citations
IRC Tour
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LITERARY TERMS AND CONCEPTS Act – The major division of the action in a drama. Alliteration – A repetition of sounds, usually consonant sounds, but sometimes vowel sounds, at the beginnings of words in the same line or in successive lines. For example: “O wild West Wind, thou breth of Autumn’s being” --Percy Bysshe Shelley, “Ode to the West Wind” Allusion – A reference to a presumably familiar person, object, place or event, or to a literary, historical, artistic, mythological, or biblical passage or work which the writer expects will be known to his readers. Antagonist – The character in fiction or drama who stands directly opposed to the protagonist. Apostrophe – The direct address to a deceased or absent person as if he were present, or to an animal or thing, or an abstract idea or quality. Apostrophe is sometimes used with personification. An example of apostrophe without personification is: “Little Lamb, who made thee?” --William Blake, “The Lamb” An example of apostrophe with personification is: “With how sad steps, O Mooon, thou climb’st the skies How silently, and with how wan a face!” --Philip Sidney, “With How Sad Steps, O Moon” Archetype – A term brought into literary criticism from the depth psychology of Carl Jung, who holds that behind each individual’s “unconscious” – the blocked-off residue of his past – lies the “collective unconscious” of the human race – the blocked off memory of our human past, even of our pre-human experiences. The unconscious memory makes powerfully effective for us a group of “primordial images” shaped by the repeated experience of our ancestors and is expressed in myths, religions, dreams, fantasies, and in literature. The literary critic applies the term to an image, a descriptive detail, a plot pattern, or a character type that occurs frequently in literature, myth religion, or folklore and is, therefore, believed to evoke profound emotions in the reader because it awakens a primordial image in the unconscious memory. Aside – Private words that a character in a play speaks to the audience or to another character which are not supposed to be overhead by others onstage. Blank Verse – Unrhymed poetry, in which each line usually has ten syllables. Five of the syllables are stressed – generally the second, fourth, sixth, eighth, and tenth syllables. For examples: “But, SOFT! What LIGHT through YONder WINdow BREAKS! It IS the EAST, and JULiet IS the SUN! A-RISE, fair SUN, and KILL the Envious MOON 18
Who IS already SICK and PALE with GRIEF That THOU her MAID art FAR more FAIR than SHE.” --William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet Characterization – The manner in which an author reveals aspects of characters. A writer can reveal a character in the following ways: 1. Telling the reader directly what the character is like. 2. Describing how the character looks and dresses. 3. Letting the reader “hear” how the character speaks. 4. Revealing the character’s private thoughts and feelings. 5. Revealing the character’s effect on other people – showing how other characters feel or behave toward the character. 6. Showing the character’s actions. The first method of revealing a character is called direct characterization. The other five methods of revealing a character are called indirect characterization. Climax – The point in dramatic structure that designates the turning point in the action, the place at which rising action reverses and becomes the falling action. Connotation – An association or suggestion which a word calls to mind in addition to its literal meaning. Couplet – Two successive lines, usually rhymed, which form a single unit of verse. For example: “I was angry with my foe. I told it not, my wrath did grow.” --William Blake, “A Poison Tree” Denotation – The literal or dictionary meaning of meanings of a word. Dialogue – A conversation of two or more people as reproduced in writing. Drama – A story that is written to be acted out in front of an audience. Fiction – Prose writing that includes invented material and that does not claim to be factually true. The term fiction most often refers to prose narratives such as novels and short stories. Even though plays an d poems are also works of the imagination, they are not usually classified as fiction. Figurative language – Language that is not meant to be interpreted on a strict literal level because it is in tended to mean something more than or other than its literal meaning. Figure of speech – A word or phrase which describes something in a way that is not literally true but may be meaningful in a deeper sense. The effect of a figure of speech on the reader is generally stronger than that produced by everyday language. Foil – A character who is used as a contrast to another character. This contrast emphasizes the differences between the two characters, bringing out the distinctive qualities in each. Foot – The unit of rhythm in a verse. A foot usually consists of one stressed or long syllable and one or more unstressed or short syllables. 19
Free verse – Poetry that has no regular meter or rhyme scheme. Free verse usually relies instead on the natural rhythms of ordinary speech. Hyperbole – Deliberate overstatement, used for effect. Iambic pentameter – A line of poetry made up of five iambs. An iamb is a metrical foot, or unit of measure, consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter is by far the most common verse line in English poetry. Shakespeare’s poems, for example, are written primarily in this meter. Image – A word or phrase which brings a picture to the reader’s mind or appeals to his senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste or smell. The collective term for images is imagery. Irony – There are three forms of irony: Verbal (also called Rhetorical), Dramatic and Situational. Rhetorical Irony occurs when a character says one thing but means another. Dramatic Irony occurs when we know what is in store for a character, but the character does not know. This is called dramatic irony because it is so often used in drama (that is, on the stage). Situational Irony describes an occurrence that is not just surprising; it is the opposite of what we expected. In an ironic situation, what actually happens is so contrary to our expectations that it seems to mock human intentions and the confidence with which we plan our futures. Metaphor – A figure of speech in which one thing is compared indirectly to another dissimilar thing, without the use of like, as, or than. For example: “Clouds and eclipses stain both moon and sun” --William Shakespeare, “No More Be Grieved” Metaphors may appear in more than one line of verse only, or they may be extended through many lines. For example, the first four lines of Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 73” contain an extended metaphor in which late middle age is compared to late autumn: “That time of year thou may’st in me behold When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang Upon those boughs which shake against the cold, Bare ruined choirs where late the sweet birds sang.” Meter – An organized rhythmic pattern created by the repetition of the same foot, or group of stressed and unstressed syllables, throughout a poem. Monologue – Any speech or narrative presented wholly by one person. Mood – The prevailing tone in a piece of literature. Motif – An idea, subject, or pattern that is regularly repeated and developed in a literature, film, music, or the visual arts. Narrator – In the broadest sense, anyone who recounts a narrative, either in writing or orally. In fiction the term is used in a more technical sense, as the ostensible author or teller of the story.
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Onomatopoeia – The use of words which in their pronunciation suggest the sound of a particular action; for example, “buzz,” “crash,” “sizzle.” However, in poetry it is a much more subtle device than simply the use of such words, when, in an effort to suit sound to sense, the poet creates verses which carry their meaning in their sounds. Oxymoron – A combination of contradictory or incongruous words; eg. Bittersweet Paradox – A self-contradictory statement or situation which nevertheless reveals some truth. For example: “Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage.” --Richard Lovelace, “To Althea, from Prison” Personification – A figure of speech in which the writer attributes human qualities to animals, inanimate objects, or ideas. For example, “Pale Ocean in unquiet slumber lay, And the wild Winds flew round, sobbing in their dismay.” --Percy Bysshe Shelley, “Adonais” Poetry – A kind of rhythmic, compressed language that uses figures of speech and imagery designed to appeal to our emotions and imaginations. Point of view – The vantage point from which a writer tells a story. There are three main points of view: 1. Omniscient or all knowing, in which the person telling the story knows everything that is going on in the story. 2. First person, in which the narrator is a character in the story. Using the pronoun “I,” the narrator tells us his or her own experience, but cannot reveal any other character’s private thoughts. 3. Limited third person, in which the narrator is outside the story, like an omniscient narrator, but tells the story from the vantage point of only one character. Prologue – A preface or introduction, most frequently associated with drama. Prose – In the broadest sense, the term is applied to all forms of written or spoken expression which do not have a regular rhythmic pattern. Protagonist – The main character in fiction or drama. Pun – A play on the multiple meanings of a word, or on two words that sound alike but have different meanings. Rhyme – The repetition of two or more words reasonably close to each other in which the last a vowel sound and the last consonant sound are the same. Example: June – moon; sea – me; sleep – weep. If the rhyme occurs at the end of the line, it is called an end rhyme. For example: “He hangs in shades the orange bright, Like golden lamps in a green night.” --Andrew Marvell, “Bermudas” 21
If a rhyme occurs within a line, it is called an internal rhyme. For example: “The ant and the mole sit both in a hole.” --Ben Jonson, “The Masque of Queens” Rhyme scheme – The pattern in which end rhyme occurs throughout a stanza or an entire poem. Rhyme schemes are usually denoted by italicized letters of the alphabet. For example, if the first and third lines of a four-line stanza rhyme, we say that the rhyme scheme is abac (a represents the rhyming words, while b and c represent the words that do not rhyme). If there are two rhymes in a four-line stanza, the rhyme scheme is abab, and if all four lines rhyme, it is aaaa. Scene – In drama, a scene is divisions within the acts. Setting – The time and place of a story. Simile – A figure of speech in which the comparison between two unlike things is expressed directly, usually by means of like or as, or than. Two examples are William Wordsworth’s line, “I wandered lonely as a cloud,” and Robert Burns’s line, “O, my luve’s like a red, red rose.” Soliloquy – A long speech in which a character expresses private thoughts or feelings. This convention generally occurs when the character is alone on stage. Sonnet – A lyric poem of fourteen lines usually written in rhymed iambic pentameter. Sonnets usually follow one of two types of rhyme schemes, but the rhymes may vary. Stanza – A group of lines which constitute a division in a poem. There is space before the last line, and after the last line in each group. Each stanza in a poem usually contains the same number of lines. Suspense – The uncertainty or anxiety we feel about what is going to happen next in a story. Symbol – In a poem, generally a figure of speech in which an object, person , place, event or quality is chosen to stand for something in addition to itself – something which may not be directly mentioned in the poem. For example, the road is a symbol of movement through life in “SixtyEighth Birthday” by James Russell Lowell: “As life runs on , the road grows strange With faces new, and near the end The milestones into headstones change, ‘Neath every one a friend.” Notice that although life is mentioned, the road is not described directly as the road of life(a metaphor), or compared to life by means of like, as, or than (a simile). The literal meaning of a symbol is preserved along with the additional meaning that it represents. Theme – The central idea or insight of a work of literature. The theme is not the same as the subject of a work, and is different from a moral (which is a lesson about how to live). Tone – The attitude a writer takes toward the reader, subject, or character. 22
Definitions adapted from: Elements of Literature (1989) by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. A Handbook to Literature (1960), Thrall, Hibbard and Homan, The Odyssey Press, New York. A Book of Poetry – 1 Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. 1969.
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COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS By mastering the spelling of these often-confused words, you’ll take care of many of your spelling problems. Study the words carefully, with their examples, before you try the exercises. accept, except Accept is a verb and means “to receive willingly.” I accept your apology. (receive it willingly) Except means “excluding” or “but.” I answered all except the last question. (all but…) advice, advise Advise is a verb (pronounce the s like z). I advise you to go. Use advice when it’s not a verb. I need some advice. affect, effect Affect is a verb and means “to influence.” His opinion will affect my decision. Effect means “result.” If a, an or the is in front of the word, then you’ll know it isn’t a verb and will effect. His words had an effect on my decision. all ready, already If you can leave out the all and the sentence still makes sense, then all ready is the form to use. (In that form, all is a separate word and can be left out.) I’m all ready to go. (I’m ready to go makes sense.) Dinner is all ready. (Dinner is ready makes sense.) But if you can’t leave out the all and still have the sentence make sense, then use already (the form in which the al has to stay in the word). I’m already late. (I’m ready late doesn’t make sense.) are, or, our Are is a verb. We are working hard. Or is used between two possibilities, as “tea or coffee.” Take it or leave it. Our shows we possess something. Our class meets at eight. brake, break Brake means “to slow or stop motion.” It’s also the name of the device that slows or stops motion. You brake to avoid an accident. You slam on your brakes. Break means “to shatter” or “to split.” It’s also the name of an interruption, as “a coffee break.” You break a dish or an engagement or a record. 24
You enjoy your Thanksgiving break. choose, chose I will choose my course of study right now. I chose my course of study yesterday. clothes, cloths She makes her own clothes. We used soft cloths to polish the car. coarse, course Coarse describes texture, as coarse cloth. The sofa was upholstered in coarse cloth. Course is used for all other meanings. Of course I enjoyed that course. complement, compliment The one spelled with an e completes something or brings it to perfection. A 30’ angle is the complement of a 60’ angle. His blue tie complements his gray suit. The one spelled with an i has to do with praise. Remember “I like compliments,” and you’ll remember to use the i spelling when you mean praise. She gave him a compliment. He complimented her on her well-written paper. conscious, conscience Conscious means “aware.” I was not conscious that it was raining. The extra n in conscience should remind you of NO, which is what your conscience often says to you. My conscience told me not to cut class. dessert, desert Dessert is the sweet one, the one you like two helpings of. So give it to helpings of s. We had chocolate cake for dessert. The other one, desert, is used for all other meanings. Don’t desert me. The camel moved slowly across the desert. do, due You do something. I do the best I can. But a payment or an assignment is due; it is scheduled for a certain time. My paper is due tomorrow. does, dose Does is a Verb. He does his work well. She doesn’t care about cars. 25
A dose is an amount of medicine. That was a bitter dose to swallow. feel, fill Feel describes your feelings. I feel ill. I feel happy about that B. Fill is what you do to a container. Will you fill my glass again? fourth, forth The number fourth has four in it. (But note that forth does not. Remember the word forty-fourth.) This is our fourth game. That was our forty-fourth point. If you don’t mean a number, use forth. She walked back and forth. have, of Have is a verb. When you say could have, the have may sound like of, but it must not be written that way. Always write could have, would have, should have, might have. I should have finished my work sooner. Then I could have gone home. Use of only in a prepositional phrase. I often think of him. hear, here The last three letters of hear spell “ear.” You hear with your ear. I can’t hear you. Speak up. The other spelling here tells “where.” Note that the three words indicating a plce or pointing out something all have here in them: here, there, where. Where are you? I’m right here. it’s, its It’s is a contraction and means “it is” or “it has.” It’s too late now. (it is too late now.) It’s been a long time. (it has been a long time.) Its is a possessive. (Possessives such as its, yours, hers, ours, theirs, whose are already possessive and never take an apostrophe.) Where are you? I’m right here. knew, new Knew has to do with knowledge (both start with k). New means “not old.” I knew I wanted a new job. know, no Know has to do with knowledge (both start with k). I know what I am doing. No means “not any” or the opposite of “yes.” 26
No, I can’t go. lead, led The past form of the verb is led. She led the parade yesterday. If you don’t mean past time, use lead, which rhymes with head. (Don’t confuse it with the metal lead, which rhymes with dead.) She will lead the parade today. loose, lose Loose means “not tight.” Note how l o o s e that word is. It has plenty of room for two o’s. My shoestring is loose. The other one, lose, has room for only one o. They are going to lose that game. moral, morale Pronounce these two words correctly, and you won’t confuse them-moral, morale. Moral has to do with right and wrong. It was a moral question. Morale means “the spirit of the group or an individual.” The morale of the team was excellent. passed, past Passed is a verb. He passed the house. Use past when it’s not a verb. He walked past the house. (It’s the same as He walked by the house, so you know it isn’t a verb.) He’s coasting on his past reputation. In the past he has always passed his exams. personal, personnel Pronounce these two correctly, and you won’t confuse them,--personal, personnel. That was his personal opinion. Personnel means “a group of employees.” She was in charge of personnel at the factory. piece, peace Remember “piece of pie.” The one meaning “a piece of something” always begins with pie. I gave him a piece of my mind. The other one, peace, is the opposite of war. They signed a peace treaty. quiet, quite Pronounce these two correctly, and you won’t misspell them. Quiet rhymes with diet. Be quiet. Quite rhyme with bite. 27
I’m quite sure of it. right, write Right means “correct” or “proper.” I got ten answers right. Write is what you do with a pen. I’ll write you a long letter soon. than, then Than compares two things. I’d rather have this than that. Then tells when (then and when rhyme, and both have e in them). She finished shopping; then she went home. their, there, they’re Their is a possessive pronoun. Their 1965 car is now a classic. There points out something. (Remember the three words indicating a place or pointing out something all have here in them: here, there, where.) There is where I left it. There were clouds in the sky. There is a contraction and means “they are.” They’re happy now. (They are happy now.) threw, through Threw means “to throw something” in past time. He threw the ball. If you don’t mean “to throw something,” use through. I walked through the door. She’s through with her work. two, too, to Two is a number. I made two B’s last semester. Too means “more than enough” or “also.” The lesson was too difficult and too long. (more than enough.) I found it boring too. (also) Use to for all other meanings. He likes to snorkel. He’s going to the beach. weather, whether Weather refers to atmospheric conditions. I don’t like cold weather. Whether means “if.” I don’t know whether I’ll go. Whether I’ll go depends on the weather. were, where 28
Were is a verb. We were miles from home. Where refers to a place. who’s, whose Who’s is a contraction and always means “who is” or “who has.” Who’s there? (Who is there?) Who’s been eating my pie? (Who has been …?) Whose is a possessive. (Possessives such as whose, its, yours, hers, ours, theirs are already possessive and never taken an apostrophe). Whose coat is this? woman, women Remember that the word is just man or men with wo in front of it. Wo man … woman … one woman Wo men … women … two or more women I’ve seen that woman before. Those women are helping with the Red Cross drive. you’re, your You’re is a contraction that always means “you are.” You’re very welcome. (You are very welcome.) Your is a possessive. Your bike is in the driveway.
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RESEARCH PROJECT You and the members of your group will research background materials relevant to Inherit the Wind, write a 3-5 page formal research paper, and create a 5-7 minute multimedia presentation to present your classmates, who will take notes in preparation for a cumulative research quiz. This assignment will make use of your academic talents and social skills, build your confidence in research and citation, help you to avoid academic dishonesty, and get you ready for the projects you will do junior and senior years. The Process Your teacher will assign you to a group that mixes your talents and strengths with those of your classmates. Over the course of approximately three weeks, you will work in class, at home, and in the computer lab to research a variety of sources, cite them responsibly, evaluate bias, and compile an informative presentation that helps you and your classmates understand the times and topics relevant to Inherit the Wind.
Recommended Research Topics: • Biography • For ONE of the following public figures, research the biography, major achievements, greatest disappointment , major writings, famous quote, influence on American society, and how they react to the glare of the spotlight: • Clarence Darrow • William Jennings Bryan • H.L. Mencken • Viewpoint • Research the opposing points of view on ONE of the following pairings: • Evolution vs. Creationism @ the time of the play • Evolution vs. Creationism in our own time • Traditionalism vs. Modernism (1920s social mores, behavior, dress, dances, education, pop culture) • Cultural Literacy • Research the competing aspects of ONE of the topics for life in the 1920s: • Technology and a changing nation in the 1920s • Small town vs. Big city life • Press coverage of the event (north, south, cartoon, editorial, headline + sound clips) • Milestones in law, politics, and education (1920’s)
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Grading: • Individual “Writing” Deadlines = 50 Points (individual grade) • You will have FIVE individual prep work deadlines for TEN POINTS each • You will receive FIVE points for having your work ready at the start of class • You will receive FIVE points for having two copies (one for the teacher, one for the group binder) at the start of class • Missing these requirements will earn you a 5/10 or a 0/10 • Individual “Multimedia” Deadlines = 50 points (individual grade) • Group Final Paper = 50 points (shared grade) • Group Presentation = 50 points (shared grade) Research and Writing Due Dates: • Groups Assigned by Teacher :
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• Three Individual Sources:
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• Group Finalizes Sources:
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• Individual Works Cited List:
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• Group Works Cited List:
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• Individual Annotated Citation:
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• Group Annotated Citations:
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• Individual C/E/W Worksheet:
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• Group Additions/Revised Works Cited:
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• Group Files, E-Mails Shared Document:
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• Peer Editing:
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• Individual Editing in The Point By:
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• Group Knits Sections Together in Lab:
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• Group Updates Parentheticals, Citations:
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• Complete Group Paper to Turnitin.com:
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• Complete Group Paper Due:
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Phases of the Research: “Find It” Phase • Intro to assignment, sources, IRC orientation + reserve [in class] • Computer lab time [in class] • Individual student finds three sources [out of class / homework] • one print source ] • one electronic source ]-------> print out or photocopy each source • one visual source ] • bring TWO copies to class (one for teacher, one for group binder) • Groups review and finalize sources [in class] • meet to assimilate, evaluate, and select sources based on individual research • eliminate repeats and gaps • all sources + revised group sources go in binder “Cite It” Phase • Intro to MLA Works Cited [in class] • Each student takes home copies of the five group sources and cites them using the citation worksheets [out of class] • Groups create preliminary Works Cited page in computer lab [in class] • Intro to Annotated Bibliographies [in class] • Group writes two annotated entries together [in class] • Each student writes the annotated entry for ONE of the remaining five sources [out of class] • Groups reconvene to finalize Group Annotated Works Cited page in computer lab [in class]
“Synthesize It” Phase • Each student will select one facet of the topic (biography, viewpoint, or cultural literacy), determine which sources best suit that topic, and complete a C/E/W worksheet for the topic [out of class] • Biography: • Point: How a liberal would see him, • Counterpoint: how a traditionalist would see him, • Implications: how the issues he addressed continue to resonate today. • Viewpoint: • Point (e.g. evolution in the 1920’s) • Counterpoint (e.g., creationism in the 1920’s) • Implications: ideological conflicts in literature and life today • Cultural Literacy: • Point: Characteristics and merits (of technology or small-town life and big-city life, for example) • Counterpoint: Limitations and drawbacks (of technology or small-town vs. big-city life, for example) • Implications: How environment affects an individual’s world view and interpretation of events
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•
Group meets to review, evaluate, and integrate each student’s individual work with an eye to making sure the group can “jigsaw” a complete picture of the topic. [in class] • At this time, gaps in the research will be remediated by going back to the computer lab for additional research. • The group will also make revisions as necessary to the annotated bibliography.
• Group will begin integrating (and making sure each student has a copy of) their work as one document [in class, with out-of-class follow-up as necessary]
“Create It” Phase • In Writing • Group continues the work from “Synthesize It” phase [in class] • Group compares paragraphs/sections and fixes gaps as needed [in class, with individual out-of-class revisions] • Peer editing [in class, with individual out-of-class revisions] • Editing in The Point [in class, with individual out-of-class revisions] • Group meets to knit sections together in computer lab [in class] • Group works to monitor changes to parentheticals and Works Cited [in class] • Write complete paper with Title Page, Essay with MLA Parenthetical Citations, Works Cited Page and hand in two copies (one to instructor, one to group binder) • In PowerPoint • Outgrowth of Synthesize It phase • Entirely in class. • Group creates a presentation containing at least 6 slides detailing their research findings
“Present It” Phase • Presentations (5-7 minutes each) • Note-taking “Evaluate It” Phase • Each group writes 2-3 questions on its objective presentation • Test on final material • Self-evaluation of writing, presentation
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CREATING AN MLA WORKS CITED PAGE Step One: Organizing Your Information Here are five common types of sources: a book, an encyclopedia, a print journal, an online journal, and a web page. Using the materials available from your teacher and The Point, transfer this information to the appropriate boxes on the worksheets. This will get you started on creating an MLA Works Cited page. Book: Author: G. Tyler Miller, Jr. Title: Environmental Science: Working with the Earth Edition: Eighth Place of Publication: United States Publisher: Brooks/Cole Copyright Date: 2001 Page: 21
Encyclopedia: Author (if any): Alonford James Robinson, Jr. Entry: Apartheid Encyclopedia Title: Africana Encyclopedia Edition: Online Publisher: Africana Copyright Date: 1999 Date of Access: 12 July 2006 URL: http://www.africanaencyclopedia.com/apartheid/apartheid.html Page: Page numbers unavailable Quotation from: Third paragraph
Journal (Print Periodical): Author: Marie-Laure Ryan Article Title: Narrative in Real Time: Chronicle, Mimesis, and Plot in the Baseball Broadcast Journal Title: Narrative Volume: 1 Number: 2 Copyright Date: May 1993 Pages of Article: 138-155 Page of Quotation: 147 Online Periodical (Journal): Authors: Josh Reynolds, Michael Stewart, Ryan MacDonald, Lacey Sischo Article Title: Have Adolescents Become Too Ambitious? High School Seniors’ Educational and Occupational Plans, 1976-2000 Journal Title: Social Problems Volume: 53 Number: 2 Publication Date: May 2006 Print Pages: 186-206 Online Pages: Not available URL: http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/sp.2006.53.2.186;jsessionid=o8-lhWjJ-Z59rfjNMX Date of Access: 12 July 2006
Webpage or Report (Non-Periodical Internet Source): Authors: Kristie N. Nelson, Sacha K. Heath, Tricia Wilson, Ann Greiner, and W. David Shuford Page or Report Title: Population Size and Reproductive Success of California Gulls at Mono Lake, California, in 2005 Site Title: Population Size and Reproductive Success of California Gulls at Mono Lake, California, with Emphasis on the Negit Isles Publisher/Copyright Holder: Mono Basin Clearinghouse Copyright Date: February 2006 Date of Access: 12 July 2006 URL: http://www.monobasinresearch.org/onlinereports/gulls.htm Quotation from Page Four, “Nest Counts,” first paragraph Page Numbers: 1-19.
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CREATING AN MLA WORKS CITED PAGE (continued) Step Two: Typing Up Your Works Cited Page Once you and your group are satisfied that you’ve gotten the right information into the right places, it’s time to head to the computer lab and start typing. Here are a few simple guidelines for writing your Works Cited page: • Sources need to be in alphabetical order. • Use the first word in each entry to do the alphabetizing. • If you have an author’s last name, use it. • If you don’t have an author’s name, start with the article title (in quotes). • Sources should NOT be numbered or bullet-pointed. • Keep it simple -- no doo-dads! • The individual entry, listed by author’s name or article title, is enough. • Spelling and punctuation matter. • There is never a good excuse for misspelling an author’s name or a title. • Pay attention to punctuation: the quotation marks, underlining, and periods need to be in the right place so your reader knows what information falls into which categories. • Put WORKS CITED at the top of your page (centered). • It’s not a bibliography, because we are not using books (biblio-) alone. • Skip a couple of lines between the heading and the first entry. • Double-space your entries; this is standard for MLA and gives your teacher room to “read between the lines.” • After each period, hit the space bar twice. It’s a minor but important detail and is easier on the reader’s eyes. Typing Hints:
Please note that when you are typing, the first line of a bibliography always starts on the LEFT margin, but the other lines for each entry always start with a TAB so that the margin is indented. (Sometimes you will need to ENTER + TAB)
Please do NOT stop typing partway across the line like this. It looks silly and shows you have not followed directions!
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CREATING AN MLA WORKS CITED PAGE (continued) Step Three: Adding Annotations To annotate means “to add notes to.” An annotated bibliography, then, is a Works Cited page that includes notes on what you have learned from each source. There are many ways to take notes from your sources, but most students find it easier and more convenient to write an annotated bibliography instead of trying to keep track of a pile of note cards. So what does an “annotated works cited” list look like? Here are a few examples: Sample Annotations Abbey, Susannah. “Hero’s Hero: Clarence Darrow.” The My Hero Project: Clarence Darrow. Online: NetTrekker, DA: 21 April 2004. (http://www.myhero.com/hero.asp?hero=c_darrow) This source features more than just the life of Darrow; it talks about reasons he is still famous after all these years and why people look up to him so much. We will be able to use this source to prove his courage and responsible use of power.
“Clarence Seward Darrow.” Encyclopedia of World Biography. 2nd edition. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998. • Only a brief overview. • Presents the facts of Darrow’s life. • Best for naming his major court cases and the controversy they inspired.
Templeton, Alan R. “Evolution.” World Book Online Reference Center. 2004. DA: 22 April 2004. This source is okay, but it pretty much repeats the facts of Darrow’s life that we have already found elsewhere. It gives a good definition of evolution, but it does not discuss Darrow’s power or influence on others. Our group will have to replace it with a better source.
• Notice that annotations can be in paragraph or list format. • Also notice that the annotation is indented TWICE on the first line and only ONCE on the following lines. 36
GRADING RUBRIC — GROUP RESEARCH PAPER
Completion of All Required Elements (Title Page + 3-5 Pages + Parenthetical Citations + Works Cited Page)
5
4
3
2
1
All elements included
One missing Element
Two missing elements
Three missing elements
Four missing elements
Conventions of Writing (Complete sentences; no run-ons or fragments; correct punctuation included commas, periods, semicolons, and title punctuation; verbs (active instead of passive, correct and consistent use of verb tense), and variety of sentence structure.
5
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One error
Two errors
Three errors
Four errors
Five errors
Conventions of Citation (Both in-text parenthetical and end-of-text Works Cited)
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One error or omission
Two errors or omissions
Three errors or omissions
Four errors or omissions
Five errors or omissions
Quality of Central Argument (Thesis and Claims) 5
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1
Clear, comprehensive, arguable, and original thesis that answers the question and integrates your secondary source with ITW; claims clearly support thesis
Clear, comprehensive, and arguable thesis that answers the questions and integrates your secondary sources with ITW; claims clearly support the thesis
Clear and comprehensive thesis that answers the question and integrates the secondary sources with ITW; claims generally support the thesis
Unclear or insubstantial thesis that fails to answer the question and/or only partially integrates the secondary sources with ITW; claims do not adequately support the thesis
Unclear and insubstantial thesis; claims missing or offtopic
Appropriate Selection and Incorporation of Sources (Evidence) 5
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3
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Paper incorporates five clearly reputable sources from a wide variety of formats (print, electronic, and visual)
Paper incorporates four reputable sources from a good variety of formats
Paper incorporates three fairly reputable sources from an adequate variety of formats
Paper incorporates two somewhat reputable sources from a minimum of formats
Paper incorporates one source or only one format
Depth of Analysis (Warrants) 5
4
3
2
1
Paper presents original and thoughtful commentary that connects all sources within the paragraph to the claim AND connects each paragraph to the overall thesis
Paper presents original and thoughtful commentary that connects all sources within the paragraph to the claim
Paper presents thoughtful commentary that connects all sources within the paragraph to the claim
Paper presents limited commentary that connects some sources within the paragraph
Paper presents inadequate commentary and/or does not connect sources within the paragraph to the claim
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GRADING RUBRIC — GROUP PRESENTATION Completion of All Required Elements (Printout of all slides w/detailed notes + Photocopies of original sources + Works Cited Page)
5
4
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2
1
All elements included
One missing Element
Two missing elements
Three missing elements
Four missing elements
Conventions of Writing (Complete sentences; no run-ons or fragments; correct punctuation included commas, periods, semicolons, and title punctuation; verbs (active instead of passive, correct and consistent use of verb tense), and variety of sentence structure.
5
4
3
2
1
One error
Two errors
Three errors
Four errors
Five errors
Conventions of Citation (Works Cited sheet for all visual sources as well as supporting information)
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1
One error or omission
Two errors or omissions
Three errors or omissions
Four errors or omissions
Five errors or omissions
Quality of Presentation 5
4
3
2
1
Detailed presentation which includes a wide variety of relevant visual references as well as a detailed explanation of their connection to the issues dealt with in the text.
Detailed presentation which includes a variety of relevant visual references as well as an explanation of their connection to the issues dealt with in the text.
Detailed presentation which includes relevant visual references as well as an explanation of their connection to the issues dealt with in the text.
Unclear or insubstantial presentation which does not include a variety of relevant visual references and omits an explanation of their connection to the issues dealt with in the text.
Unclear and insubstantial presentation. Visual references are unrelated to the subject matter.
Appropriate Selection and Incorporation of Sources (Evidence) 5
4
3
2
1
Presentation incorporates six detailed slides which highlight the group’s thesis as well as supporting evidence from a variety of sources.
Presentation incorporates five detailed slides which highlight the group’s thesis as well as supporting evidence from a variety of sources.
Presentation incorporates four slides which highlight the groups’ thesis as well as some supporting evidence.
Presentation incorporates three slides which highlight the groups’ thesis as well as some supporting.
Presentation is incomplete, does not include an adequate discussion of the group’s thesis or findings.
5 Slides and narration present original and thoughtful commentary that explains the full significance of the group’s findings as well as their connection to the larger issue in the text.
Depth of Analysis (Captions and Commentary) 4 3 2 Slides and narration present commentary that explains the full significance of the group’s findings as well as their connection to the larger issue in the text.
Slides and narration present commentary that explains some of the significance of the group’s findings as well as their connection to the larger issue in the text
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Slides and narration present limited commentary that explains some of the significance of the group’s findings but fails to discuss their connection to the larger issue in the text
1 Slides and narration present inadequate commentary that fails to explain the full significance of the group’s findings and their connection to the larger issue in the text
WRITING AND TAKING THE TEST
In your groups: As part of the preparation for your group presentation and paper, each member of your group should write 2-3 multiple-choice questions about your individual section A good multiple-choice question provides a good “stem” (the backbone of the question) and four-to-five possible answers. Try to make the answers the same length, try to make their wording as parallel as possible, and make at least three of the five answers look like really good answers even though only one of them is right. Once each member of the group has written his or her individual questions, share them with your group and make the others take “your” test while you try to answer their questions. You will quickly discover problems that need to be fixed, wording that needs to be clarified, and missing information that needs to be covered. Make your individual revisions, then meet as a group to finalize your five best questions. You will submit these questions, along with an answer key, to your instructor.
The test itself: Your teacher will compile the questions submitted by all the groups and use them to create a comprehensive multiple-choice exam on the information that you and your classmates have presented. And, because this IS an English class, your teacher will write a series of short-answer questions to cover the types of open-ended, issues-based questions that multiplechoice answers cannot adequately assess. You will not see these questions in advance, but you will likely have the option of choosing one or more of the short-answer questions to answer.
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SHARED RESPONSIBILITY CONTRACT
I, by signing my name below, acknowledge that the success of the group assignment depends partly on the quality and punctuality of the individual work that we do. In addition, the strength of the group project depends upon our ability as individuals to collaborate with and support one another. Therefore, if I have a problem completing my portion of the assignment and do not notify my partners or seek their assistance, I must know that the group grade as well as my own will suffer, and this is unfair to my partners. At the same time, I realize that one person cannot and should not be responsible for the entirety of the project. the work is to be distributed evenly. I will receive an individual grade for meeting each of the “preparation” deadlines on time and for the quality of the preparation that I do. I will also receive a group grade on the final product; that grade will be the same for everyone in the group. By signing below, I indicate that I understand and will comply with these conditions.
Signed:
Date:
Student:
________________________________________
Student:
________________________________________
Student:
________________________________________
_________________________________________________
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Scholar:
BIAS IN POLITICAL CARTOONS — HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Sophomore English
Using what you learned in class today about bias, please evaluate each of the following cartoons in terms of the artist’s use of visual exaggeration, symbolic coding, and distortion. Identify these elements and explain how they work to advance each cartoon’s agenda.
First, a bit of historical background so that you understand the context of these cartoons:
Cartoonists vs. the King: Cartoons on the Congo By Jim Zwick
In 1904, a trans-Atlantic movement was begun to protest the brutality of King Leopold's rule of the Congo Free State. The Belgian king gained control of the Congo in 1885 by promising to end slavery there, act as the protector of the native population, and guarantee free trade. Before the next decade was over, missionary reports of slave labor, rape, mutilations and other forms of torture used by Leopold's agents to increase rubber and ivory collection in the Congo were beginning to accumulate. Leopold was an early master of modern public relations, however, and used the media very effectively to counter such reports and to maintain his own image as a benevolent ruler. Leopold's almost saintly reputation, developed through the earliest reports of his work in the Congo in the 1880s, made it difficult for most people to believe the reports of atrocities. The reported atrocities were so horrible that it seemed impossible that they could be happening under the rule of the man whose benevolent and self-sacrificing goals the world had endorsed such a short time before. In its efforts to end King Leopold's rule, the Congo Reform Association had to document the extent of the atrocities committed under Leopold's rule and undermine that reputation that kept the public from believing their reports. Photographs were used to document atrocities. Cartoons could not match their influence in presenting what most people of the time considered to be photographic proof," but by condensing the information that was becoming available about atrocities into caricatures of Leopold and others involved in the Congo they could be just as effective in undermining Leopold's reputation. (http://www.boondocksnet.com/gallery/pc_intro.html)
Why do these cartoons matter? If you have seen Hotel Rwanda, many of the problems shown in that film are a direct result (nearly a hundred years later) of the imperialist exploitation that is illustrated in these cartoons. 41
Cartoon #1: http://www.boondocksnet.com/gallery/cartoons/congo050107.html
Hail, Leopold! Kladderadatsch (Berlin), rpt. Literary Digest 30 (Jan. 7, 1905).
Political cartoon about King Leopold's rule of the Congo Free State Hail, monarch, good and grand, Ruling the Congo land! Hail, Leopold!
Political cartoon about King Leopold's rule of the Congo Free State Tusks we must bring to thee, Rubber from every tree,
Political cartoon about King Leopold's rule of the Congo Free State Or our poor heads shall be cut off and sold!
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Cartoon #2: http://www.boondocksnet.com/gallery/cartoons/congo060818.html
He Came to Bless and Remained to Prey
By David Wilson London Daily Chronicle, rpt. Literary Digest 33 (Aug. 18, 1906).
Political cartoon about King Leopold's rule of the Congo Free State He Came to Bless -And Remained to Prey.
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Cartoon #3: http://www.boondocksnet.com/gallery/cartoons/congo070100a.html "Free" Congo in the Rubber Coils
By Linley Sambourne Punch, rpt. American Review of Reviews 35 (Jan. 1907).
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Cartoon #4: http://www.boondocksnet.com/gallery/cartoons/congo080404.html The (Red) Rubber King
By David Wilson London Daily Chronicle, rpt. Literary Digest 36 (April 4, 1908).
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Cartoon #5: http://www.boondocksnet.com/gallery/cartoons/congo051126.html
Effect of the Kodak
By David Wilson London Daily Chronicle, rpt. New York World Sunday Magazine (Nov. 26, 1905).
Political cartoon about King Leopold's rule of the Congo Free State King Leopold is confronted with a report of "Harrowing Tales of Torture from the Congo" and exclaims, "Lies! My dear sir!"
Political cartoon about King Leopold's rule of the Congo Free State Photographs now clutter the ground, and the camera asks, "Who said lies?" The report of "Harrowing Tales" is now rolled up and reads, "Reform Association 46
Report."
SOPH BIAS LESSON — PROSE MATERIALS A quick Google search on “global warming” highlighted these two sources. What is the bias of each source? How can you tell? What words have particular emotional impact? What evidence proves more convincing?
WEBSITE #1 http://www.globalwarming.org/ This site is a project of the Cooler Heads Coalition Updates by the Competitive Enterprise Institute NEWS: The Competitive Enterprise Institute has produced two 60-second television spots focusing on the alleged global warming crisis and the calls by some environmental groups and politicians for reduced energy use. The ads are airing in 14 U.S. cities from May 18 to May 28, 2006.
WEBSITE #1’S LINK TAKES US TO THIS ARTICLE http://www.worldclimatereport.com/index.php/2005/12/22/proving-sciencebias/
December 22, 2005 Proving Science Bias Filed under: Climate Politics —
Two recent events underscore how predictable is the distortion of global warming by those who gain from exaggeration. The events were the Montreal “Conference of the Parties” which had signed the United Nations’ Kyoto Protocol on global warming, and the fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union (AGU) in San Francisco. Both took place in early December. The sheer volume of hype was impressive. Following are the headlines, along with the sources, generated on the afternoon of December 7, first from the Montreal UN conference. (University news sources are those that were eventually picked up in other stories). These were obtained from Google’s news search page.
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 1 •Global warming to halt ocean circulation (University of Illinois) •Warming trend adds to hazard of Arctic trek (Salem OR News) •Pacific islanders move to escape global warming (Reuters) •Tuvalu: That sinking feeling (PBS) •World weather disasters spell record losses in 2005 (Malaysia Star) •Arctic peoples urge UN aid to protect cultures (Reuters) •Threatened by warming, Arctic people file suit against US (AFP) Next, from San Francisco: •Ozone layer may take a decade longer to recover (New York Times) •Earth is all out of new farmland (London Guardian) •Forests could worsen global warming (UPI) •Warming could free far more carbon from high arctic soil than earlier thought (University of Washington) •Rain will take greater toll on reindeer, climate change model shows (University of Washington) •Methane’s impacts on climate change may be twice previous estimates (NASA) •Average temperatures climbing faster than thought in North America (Oregon State University) How can things be so bad? Each one of these stories carries an “it’s worse than we thought” subtext. There was a single additional story to the contrary, carried by AP, which indicated that plants may store more carbon dioxide than was previously thought, which would help to limit warming. That gives us a score of “it’s worse than we thought” winning by 14-1. What’s the chance that this is really true? Start with a prediction about climate change. For example, perhaps some 48
computer model predicts that the next 50 years will see about three-quarters of Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 2 a degree (Celsius) of warming (which is actually the most likely value). Now, given new information, what’s the chance that this forecast will be raised rather than lowered, i.e. that “it’s worse than we thought” rather than “it’s not as bad as we thought it was.” Fifty-fifty. Unless the world is a very strange place, each new piece of information that causes us to change an estimate of some future quantity has an equal probability of raising or lowering that forecast. That’s the same probability one gets in a coin flip. The odds of two successive “heads” is one in four. So what’s the chance of only one “head” in 15 successive coin tosses? One in 2,000. The most casual observer would have to remark on this prima facie evidence for rampant bias in climate science, but the most casual social scientist might find it quite predictable. Scientists compete with each other for finite resources, just like bankers and corporations. In this case, successful competitors are those who are rewarded by their universities or institutions. In all science, this means publishing research articles in the refereed scientific literature. That research costs tremendous amounts of money and there really is only one provider: Uncle Sam (i.e. you and me). No one gets much of this pie by claiming that his or her issue may, in fact, be no big deal. Instead, any issue – take global warming, acid rain, and obesity as examples, must be portrayed in the starkest of terms. Everything is a crisis, and all the crises are competing with each other. Similar logic applies in the policy arena. Remember that the job of policymakers is precisely that: to make policy, which does not get made unless whatever policy there might be is “absolutely necessary” to avoid certain doom. Then, finally, what gets played on TV and in the papers? More crises. Near-death experiences sell newspapers and attract viewers. Those who question this need only look at ratings for The Weather Channel. Some people may remember that it used to be the station where you turned to for round-the-clock national and local weather. The ratings were in the tank. Now, in prime time, you are more likely to see the twentieth re-run of how this tornado went over that house and how everyone almost died, usually with some pretty snappy home video. Or, just to get your attention for sure, a re-enactment of the sinking of an oil rig in a howling cyclone — re-enacted because everyone on board drowned. Ratings have boomed.
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 3 Perhaps it is dismaying that science has become as blatantly biased in the direction of tragedy as television. But, given the way we fund and reward science and scientists, it was inevitable, and global warming is only one of many of science’s predictable distortions. WEBSITE #1 ALSO TAKES US TO THIS ARTICLE http://www.worldclimatereport.com/index.php/2006/01/18/not-as-bad-aswethought/ January 18, 2006 Not As Bad As We Thought! Filed under: Glaciers/Sea Ice, Sea Level Rise — A couple of weeks ago we wrote a cute little piece titled “Proving Science Bias” that looked into the deluge of news stories on global warming and its impacts that were released on a single day last December when both the COP-11 meeting was going on in Montreal and the fall meeting of American Geophysical Union (AGU) was taking place in San Francisco. Of the 15 different findings that were released and covered by the press on December 7, 2005 about global warming, 14 of them were reporting that things were “worse than we thought” and only one of them concluded that things weren’t going to be as bad as originally forecast. Given an unbiased prediction, there should be a 50-50 chance that things turned out either worse or better than expected. Under such a scenario, there is only a 1-in-2,000 chance that 14 things out of 15 would be worse. But that’s what happened. So, either the original forecasts were not unbiased, a rare event did indeed occur, or, more likely, the interpretation and reporting went a bit over the top—that is, the press (and to some degree the researchers themselves) only like to hype the more extreme results. A report in the January 19th issue of Nature magazine will help test this theory. Researchers Sarah Raper and Roger Braithwaite have published a paper titled “Low sea level rise projections from mountain glaciers and icecaps under global warming.” Using a more realistic glacier shrinkage model than the one used by the IPCC in its 2001 Third Assessment Report (TAR)—one that allows glaciers to reach a new mass balance state under warming conditions rather than having to completely melt away—Raper and Braithwaite find that the contribution from sea level rise from the melting of glaciers and icecaps is only going to be about half as much as originally projected in the IPCC TAR under one of their mid-range warming scenarios (SRES A1B). Admittedly, the additional input of water from shrinking icecaps and glaciers is not a major contributor to the total sea level rise—together they contribute about 27% (or 4.2 in.) to the overall total of 15.2 in. projected by the IPCC to accompany scenario A1B. Nevertheless, the new result lowers the overall sea level rise under this scenario by about 2 inches or about 13%.
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 4 Clearly, the Raper and Braithwaite results fall under the category of sea level rise is “NOT going to be as bad as we thought” and adds to a growing number of model simulations and observations that suggest that future sea level rise will prove to be far less than the extremists advertise (see here and here for example). We guarantee that had they reported that sea level rise was going to be 13% “worse than we thought,” headlines would have been made around the world. So kudos to Raper and Braithwaite for writing up their results and to Nature for actually publishing them. Now let’s sit back and see how the press handles it. Reference: Raper, S.C.B., and R.J. Braithwaite, 2006. Low sea level rise projections from mountain glaciers and icecaps under global warming. Nature, 439, 311-313.
WEBSITE #2 TAKES US TO THIS ARTICLE http://www.oriononline.org/pages/om/05-1om/deMenocal.html
AFTER TOMORROW: Ignoring global warming doesn’t change the science; it just leaves us unprepared for the consequences By Peter DeMenocal Orion Magazine, January/February 2005
AS A GROUP, CLIMATE SCIENTISTS are reluctant to claim even the soundest projections as incontrovertible facts. The climate system is by definition exceedingly complex, and theories must always be open to revision as new observations become available. When I was a graduate student we learned that the warming that defined the end of an ice age occurred very gradually, over the course of many thousands of years. This view of sluggish climate changes was shattered about ten years ago when scientists discovered that the main warming events that ended the last ice age took place within less than a decade. In Greenland, air temperatures warmed by about fifteen degrees centigrade within the time it takes to complete a college degree.
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 5 Still, most climate scientists today agree that Earth's climate is warming and changing as a result of human activity, and that the projected changes in coming decades will affect nearly all parts of the globe. This combination of exceptional risk and uncertainty has led to a lack of clear consensus among policy makers on how to address the global warming crisis. National-level planning and preparation for current and future climate change remain mired in dysfunction and polarized along a scientific/political divide. There are those who are convinced that there is a big problem and those who would make the case that there is no problem at all. A path of least resistance has led to a cul-de-sac of inaction. The divide between science and policy is marked by the fundamentally different motivations, accountability, and time frames that characterize the players. Scientists are generally motivated by intellectual curiosity and achievement; they are accountable mainly to their profession; and they have open time frames in which to produce results. Politicians, on the other hand, are generally motivated by the need for conflict resolution and political viability. They are accountable to their constituents and have very restricted time frames in which to produce results. Global warming is of far larger scope than any single administration can address, and effective policy demands a decades-long, committed, political response. To complicate matters, political solutions to global warming call for critical decisions based on imperfect observations and seemingly nebulous risks, in contrast to problems like world hunger or AIDS, for which the evidence and consequences are all too apparent. Consequently, few American politicians have had the courage to take on the issue. Given the short-term economic costs and the perceived lifestyle changes required, addressing the problem of global warming is a platform perfectly ill-suited to election or re-election. WITH THE START of the Industrial Revolution, humankind began a vast global climate experiment of which we are only now realizing the effects. Combustion of fossil fuels, burning, and land-use changes have led to a nearly 34 percent increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), reaching the highest levels in four hundred thousand years, and a nearly 150 percent increase in methane, both greenhouse gases that warm the planet.
Sidebar: Global Trends? • A study released last August by the National Academy of Sciences projects that Los Angeles summertime temperatures could increase by as much as 15 degrees in coming decades, putting its climate on par with that of Death Valley. • The same study projected reductions in the Sierra Nevada snow pack of 73 to 90 percent, "resulting in disrupted water supplies... to the Central Valley," with devastating consequences for wine production, milk production, and agriculture in the region.
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 6 • China's industrial output -- and its contribution to global warming -- has doubled in the past five years due in large part to the American appetite for inexpensive, disposable goods. • Europe, Japan, and North America, with 15 percent of the world's population, account for 66 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. The United States alone contributes 24 percent. • The World Health Organization estimates that global warming causes 150,000 deaths each year. • In the past six years, as many as 3,000 farmers in the Anantapur region of India have committed suicide as their wells dried up due to drought and they fell behind in debt payments. • At the December, 2004 U.N. summit on the Kyoto Protocol in Buenos Aires, the U.S. delegation spent its capital trying to convince delegates to change the phrase "global warming" to "climate variability" in all official documents.
Over the last 150 years the Earth's surface temperatures have risen by about 0.8 degrees centigrade, with the majority of the rise taking place in just the last fifty years. A true though seemingly improbable statistic is that all of the ten warmest years on record have occurred since 1990. The warming we've experienced so far may not seem like much, but it is just the beginning of a steadily upward trend that is expected to reach between 1.4°C and 5.8°C by the end of this century when CO2 levels wi ll have more than doubled. The Earth hasn't seen such high CO2 levels for over 25 million years, and it was then a very different place: London had groves of palm trees, and crocodiles nested in the swamps of a warm and humid Canadian arctic. Current projections indicate that if nothing is done to slow greenhouse gas emissions, rising global temperatures will produce a wide range of climate impacts. Large-scale changes in rainfall patterns and growing seasons are predicted, as are more intense and frequent storms, typhoons, and hurricanes. Higher frequencies of extreme weather events may also occur, with record temperatures and high heat index days, like the August 2003 heat wave across Europe that claimed thousands of lives. Sea levels are predicted to continue to rise (perhaps by as much as one meter by 2100), an especially pernicious risk since roughly half of the world's population lives within sixty miles of an ocean. In addition to causing the loss of productive land in highly populated coastal regions such as Bangladesh, rising seas would force the relocation of tens or hundreds of millions of people and lead to a refugee crisis of unprecedented scope. Perhaps one of the greatest challenges to society, however, and one often overlooked, is the likelihood of drought events more severe than any we have experienced. The continental interiors, home to the breadbaskets of North America and Eurasia, are projected to become markedly drier in future decades, leading to a greater frequency of protracted regional drought. How a modern, urbanized society of today might respond to a period of pervasive, extended drought is yet to be seen, but
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 7 climate history may offer some lessons in at least understanding the effects of this aspect of our climatically uncertain future. FOR ALL ITS DEVASTATION, the Dust Bowl of the 1930s -- one of the most well documented agricultural, economic, and social disasters in the history of the United States -- was the result of a merely "above average" drought. But in a rare display of unanimity the scientific community has determined that this is not the type of drought we need to prepare for today. Cardinal among the climate risks presented, under numerous scenarios, by global warming, is the higher probability of "megadroughts." A megadrought is a very different beast in that it persists for many decades, not just a few years, and affects broad sectors of whole continents. Though we have no modern instrumental records of past megadroughts, there is very good scientific evidence that vast regions of North America witnessed several such periods during the last millennium, with devastating cultural consequences. Paleoclimatology, the branch of science to which I belong, involves the reconstruction of ancient climatic conditions using evidence such as tree rings, lake and ocean sediment records, and ice cores. Our particular corner of science affords us a different view of climate change than that available to scientists who, for example, examine historical (recorded) climate changes. Such records extend back only a century or two. But by comparing paleoclimate evidence of climate changes to archeological records of cultural changes, we have been able to learn a great deal about the broader social impacts of exceptionally large changes in climate. The history of the Maya culture in Central America provides possibly the best example of how an extended drought can impact a highly developed, technologically advanced urban society. The Maya had thrived for nearly two thousand years and their cultural achievements were comparable in many ways to those of any modern G-8 nation. They were accomplished astronomers, mathematicians, and urban planners. They built large, well-engineered cities and had established trade networks. Their society was stratified, closely governed, and populous, with an estimated eight to fifteen million people in cities and rural villages across Central America and the Yucatán Peninsula. This thriving civilization collapsed at the peak of its cultural and scientific development, between 750 and 950 a.d., and the decline coincided precisely with a 150-year drought that gripped the region. A paleoclimate record consisting of annually laminated sediments revealed that the three regional waves of societal collapse (occurring around 810, 860, and 910 a.d.) corresponded with three decade-long extreme droughts that hit the region during this already dry period. Many archeologists recognize the importance of social conditions in contributing to the collapse, but the extended drought appears to have been a primary factor in gradually reducing the carrying capacity of the land, which already suffered from overpopulation and overexploitation of resources.
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 8 THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY is now very confident that much of the warming over the past century is attributable to human activities. Global temperatures have changed for many natural reasons, of course, but when scientists try to account for the full record of global temperature changes over the past several hundred years, it is impossible to obtain a close match to the observed temperature curve without including the effects of very recent increases in greenhouse gas concentrations. With global warming comes greater probabilities of "climate surprises" -- unexpected climate changes such as megadroughts, which would seriously challenge our ability to adapt. Wally Broecker, a National Medal of Science awardee for his paleoclimate research and my colleague at Columbia University, likens the climate system to an angry beast that we're poking with a stick -- provoking something we know to be extremely sensitive and immeasurably powerful. Of perhaps still greater concern than megadrought, though even more difficult to predict, is the possibility that continued global warming may lead to changes in ocean circulation -- the giant flywheel of global climate, and also its Achilles heel. Modern ocean observations provide some very early indications that the initial phases of circulation change are already underway. A team of oceanographers at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution have observed that all Nordic seas have freshened tremendously over the last forty years, and that the salinity of the deep ocean is now lowering as well. These changes may be signaling a shift or disruption in ocean circulation, and if that happens, we're in for all sorts of surprises. Atmospheric circulation is often likened to a nimble mouse scurrying through the forest -- it responds quickly to imposed changes. Ocean circulation, on the other hand, is more like a giant lumbering elephant -- reluctant to alter its course but suddenly clearing the forest when it does. The kinds of climate change that could result from a shift in ocean circulation would be as devastating to contemporary culture as the decimating drought was to the Maya. The scenario that current climate models show goes like this: Today, as northward flowing warm, salty North Atlantic Drift water is stripped of its heat by the atmosphere each winter, it brings surface warmth to the North Atlantic, and is partly responsible for the mild climate of northwestern Europe. In the Nordic seas chilled surface waters sink and massive volumes of cold, salty deep water flow southward toward the Antarctic, where they resurface, forming a giant ocean conveyor. In some climate model simulations of our future, after a gradual, decades-long warming and freshening trend in the North Atlantic due to increased Arctic warming, ice melting, and river runoff, this ocean conveyor slows down abruptly -- within several decades. The stability of the ocean conveyor has been likened to a light switch that flips suddenly from the "on" to "off" position given a steady application of finger pressure. The resulting changes in ocean temperatures would likely lead to equally abrupt, very large, and lasting changes in land temperature and rainfall patterns globally. A shift in the ocean conveyor, once initiated, is essentially irreversible over a time period of many decades to centuries, and would permanently alter the climatic norms for some 55
Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 9 of the most densely populated and highly developed regions of the world, multiplying the risks -- and magnifying the effects -- of major climatic disruptions from global warming. While most climate models indicate the conveyor is responsive to global warming, few models project a complete conveyor shutdown within the next century. However, we do know that this scenario has happened several times before, and scientists have a very good idea of how large and how far-reaching the impacts can be. When the Earth was thawing out of the last ice age about 14,500 years ago due to gradual, periodic changes in the Earth's orbit, the melting of large ice sheets on the continents funneled large volumes of fresh water into the North Atlantic. Analyses of ice cores, deep-sea sediment cores, and other geologic evidence have shown that the surge of river runoff did in fact form a freshwater lid over the North Atlantic, which subsequently shut down formation of deep water currents for about a millennium between 12,800 and 11,700 years ago. Known as the Younger Dryas event, this period marked a sudden reversal in the warming trend, and regional temperatures plummeted. Greenland and northern European temperatures dropped by as much as ten to fifteen degrees centigrade within a decade. Arctic conditions were established in the United Kingdom and Europe; icebergs reached as far south as Portugal; Africa and parts of Asia became much drier. The event has been detected in paleoclimate records from nearly all regions of the globe. It took nearly a thousand years for ocean salinities to gradually increase until the conveyor switched on again. An equally rapid warming, completed in less than a decade, marked the end of the Younger Dryas event and the beginning of the current warm period, the Holocene, bringing with it the birth of agriculture and the subsequent rise of complex urban societies.
IN LEARNING HOW and why past shifts in climate have occurred and what their effects have been, paleoclimatology has made remarkable progress in defining just how large and abrupt natural climate swings can be and what these may mean for our global-warming future. In his statement to a U.S. Senate committee in 2003, Richard Alley, a leading paleoclimatologist from Pennsylvania State University, presented a consensus view of past and present climate change that was recently summarized in the National Academy of Sciences report Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable Surprises. The main points were that climate is very sensitive to even weak forcing; that climate changes, when they occur, tend to happen very quickly (on timescales of years to decades); and that the present and projected greenhouse-gas climate forcing greatly exceeds the relatively weak forcing that caused, for example, the Dust Bowl, or even past megadroughts. "Many current policies and practices are likely to be inadequate in a world of rapid and unforeseen climatic changes," said Alley. "Identifying ways to improve these policies will be beneficial even if abrupt climate change turns out to fit a best-case, rather than
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 10 a worst-case, scenario. Societies will have no regrets about the new policies, because they will be good policies regardless of the magnitude of environmental change." The "no-regrets" and "good policy" political solutions are still distant dreams, however, as the U.S. government has been reluctant to face the political dimension of the problem. In 2001, the Bush administration abandoned the Kyoto Protocol, the first legally binding international treaty for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The administration deemed it unfair (developing nations such as China and India were exempted in the short term) and viewed it as too costly to the U.S. economy. Yet the cost of doing nothing may be far greater. In the state of Florida alone, the projected cost of a one-meter rise in sea level has been estimated to exceed $300 billion (in 1991 dollars), not including future development losses for the nearly fourteen thousand square miles of inundated real estate. A recent European Union economic assessment concluded that Kyoto compliance will cost the EU only about 0.1 percent of its gross domestic product by 2010. And with less than 5 percent of the world's population here in this country responsible for nearly 25 percent of global fuel consumption and emissions, there can be little question that the U.S. has a huge historical carbon debt. The current gas-guzzling culture only deepens the international community's growing disappointment with the lack of American leadership on the issue. Even in the U.S. there is a growing recognition that the magnitude of the changes that could ensue from global warming would very likely challenge political stability worldwide. A report commissioned in 2002 by the Pentagon entitled Imagining the Unthinkable explored a scenario in which continued global warming leads to the eventual shutdown of the conveyor after 2010. The resulting changes in climate bring about protracted megadroughts in Europe, China, and North America. Food, water, and energy shortages create border conflicts that are exacerbated by mass migrations. Citing historical precedent, the authors note, "Every time there is a choice between starving or raiding, humans raid." Widespread famine and political chaos eventually lead to a "world of warring states." Many scientists dismissed the report as overly alarmist. "Exaggerated scenarios serve only to intensify the existing polarization over global warming," said Wally Broecker. "What is needed is not more words but rather a means to shut down CO2 emissions to the atmosphere."
IT MAY BE TOO LATE to reverse changes that have already begun, but there is still much that can be done to minimize future increases of greenhouse gases and to mitigate and prepare for the effects of large climate change. Policy makers must begin serious discussion on immediate implementation of political solutions to reduce emissions and increase adaptive capacity. While some of the coping strategies learned from previous shorter droughts will no doubt prove useful, the sheer duration and intensity of a megadrought pose an entirely new set of
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Sophomore Bias Lesson (Prose) -- Page 11 technological hurdles. One of the world's leading freshwater resource experts, Dr. Peter Gleick of the Pacific Institute, recommends that "water managers should begin a systematic reexamination of engineering design, operating rules, contingency plans, and water allocation policies under a wider range of climatic conditions and extremes than has been traditionally used. For example, the standard engineering practice of designing for the worst case in the historical observational record may no longer be adequate." Presciently, some industries are already incorporating future global warming into their business plans. Perhaps most revealing are the concerns of the reinsurance industry -- those who insure the insurers -- which has been paying out an escalating number of claims in recent years as a result of vastly increased storm-related property damage. Between 1989 and 1994, insurers paid out more than $67 billion in storm damage claims -- $20 billion more than was paid out during the previous five years. Natural disaster claims in 2003 were up 36 percent from 2002, and claims from the August hurricanes of 2004 exceeded $20 billion in Florida alone. Facing potentially crippling future claims, the industry has been lobbying on Capitol Hill to jump-start discussions on climate-change mitigation. In a richly significant statement, H. R. Kaufmann, general manager of Swiss Re, the world's second-largest reinsurer, dryly announced, "In light of the magnitude of these losses, it would be prudent for the property/casualty industry to act as if that theory [global warming] is correct. Failure to act would leave the industry and its policyholders vulnerable to truly disastrous consequences."
PETER B. DEMENOCAL is an associate professor of earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University, where he conducts research at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. He serves on scientific steering committees for the National Science Foundation, American Geophysical Union, and the National Academy of Sciences.
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