Soil Conservation Strategies and Policies for East Timor (A project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Soil Management and Conservation) Marcal Gusmao (Department of Agronomy, Agricultural Faculty, UNTL) ABSTRACT Land degradation is one of the most serious environmental and developmental problems in East Timor. It has resulted in low crop production and brought many East Timorese to the brink of starvation. Fortunately there is a willingness of the government to rehabilitate degraded land to increase crop production through the Department of Agriculture in cooperation with international and local NGOs. However, there is still considerable lack of expertise, knowledge and experience to find the most appropriate technology and implementation strategies to address land degradation. The aim of this presentation is to suggest viable approaches to soil conservation in East Timor. Three appropriate technologies were assessed that can be used in this country. These are mechanical methods, agronomic measures and agroforestry systems. These technologies have been practiced to tackle degraded land elsewhere in Asia that is geographically similar to East Timor. Hence these technologies can be appropriate and be applied in this country to overcome land degradation and improve crop production. Based on the farming systems and socio-economic conditions, agroforestry systems are the most appropriate method as they are accessible and provide the basic needs of the farmers. As a new country with limited funds, it should be important for the government to cooperate with international and local NGOs in program implementation. Provision of incentives could be the most powerful of the policies to encourage farmers in sustainable development. In addition, the provision of training for those who supervise farmers in program implementation will be crucial.

Introduction Centuries of colonisation by Portuguese and decades of annexation by Indonesia have brought East Timor environmental disaster. The East Timorese environment and sustainable farming systems have been of little concern amidst political strategy and unsympathetic economic interests. Land degradation has been one of the most obvious environmental problems that East Timorese face since independence in 1999 (McWilliam, 2003; FAO/WFP, 2003; IFAD, 2000). Land degradation is a serious problem affecting human life and environment. Although there is no exact definition of land degradation, it may be defined as factors that reduce the physical, chemical and biological status of the land (Barrow, 1991; Hudson, 1971 & 1981) and which may restrict land’s productive capacity. Land degradation is divided into three categories (McTainsh & Boughton, 1993), which are a) soil erosion and deposition including water erosion, mass movement of soil and coastal erosion by marine processes, b) soil degradation which includes soil salinity, degradation of soil structure, soil fertility decline, soil acidification, water repellence, waterlogging and soil pollution, and c) ecosystem change, which includes changes to vegetation cover and composition and the introduction of plant and animal pests. There are two main factors that cause land degradation to occur; these are natural hazards, such as heavy rainfall, strong winds and drought, and human activities (Cramb & Saguiguit, 2000; Brookfield & Byron, 1993) or the combinations of these two different factors (Borrow, 1991). Human activities are widely known

as factors accelerating land degradation. In tropical areas, in particular, it is well known that hilly and mountainous landscapes with very high rainfall are potentially disastrous sites for soil erosion. In fact, particle detachment and surface runoff increases with increasing ground steepness and length and lack of the surface cover. Moreover, soil erosion can be accelerated with the expansion of cultivated areas by deforestation (Donner, 1987). Soil conservation measures in tropical areas have therefore been focussed on control of water erosion through agroforestry systems (Young, 1997) e.g. bed-cropping (van Cooten & Borrell, 1999). The agroforestry systems increase surface cover, reducing surface runoff, increasing infiltration, increasing structural stability and fertility. However, during Portuguese colonisation of about 500 years, East Timorese’s sandalwood (Santalum album) was cut down for export leading to the disappearance of this vegetation (McWilliam, 2003). McWilliam argues that under the Portuguese government, the sustainable management and development of forest resources was poor. After Portuguese colonisation, Indonesia’s 24 years occupation led to further land degradation. As East Timorese guerrillas (FRETILIN) based in forests, caused environmental programs (e.g. reforestation) to be suspended due to security issues; it was argued that reforestation could give opportunities to FRETILIN and war against the Indonesian Army (McWilliam, 2003). On the other hand, East Timorese people who had been living under starvation conditions during the occupation were allowed to increase crop production by opening new fields i.e. deforestation for cropping. I personally observed vast deforestation occurred in 1980’s just a few years after the East Timorese from Matebian Mountain in the eastern of the East Timor surrendered. This occurred in the upland sub-district of Quelicai (Baucau district), thus the land degradation was increased. Similar conditions in other places over East Timor were also pronounced. In fact, about 30% of East Timor’s forest disappeared over the period 1972 – 1999 (McWilliam, 2003). Furthermore, Indonesian government policy encouraged East Timorese to improve the province’s economy by increasing crop production. This programme increased human pressure on land use particularly in upland areas without any conservative practices. Land degradation e.g. soil erosion and fertility decline were the consequences of yield reduction and decreasing biodiversity. In particular, the district of Bobonaro was one of the obvious examples that experienced this land problem over the years (IFAD, 2000). Land degradation in East Timor in the post-independence era will continue to affect human life and environment, if unsustainable farming systems such as slash and burn and deforestation are not stopped. These systems will continue to increase soil erosion, reduce soil fertility and perpetuate low crop production and biodiversity decline. To reduce land degradation one must improve farming systems from traditional slash and burn towards sustainable farming and stop deforestation. Soil conservation provides sustainable farming systems and, together with reforestation, can restore soil fertility and biodiversity, matters that are now urgent for East Timor (McWilliam, 2003; IFAD, 2000). However, a suitable method of soil conservation is not easily defined, but it can be suggested by relevance to some of the more successful soil conservation measures employed in Asia. Moreover, the complex socio-economic and cultural structures of poor people require sensitive policy development delivered by the national government as well as international and national NGOs. This study is aiming to suggest viable approaches to soil conservation in East Timor. Mainly geographical profile of East Timor including climate, topography and soil types and farming system practices both of which have been great effect on land degradation. In particular, farming systems in the upland and lowland areas will be discussed separately. This aims to identify the greater contribution to land degradation; it will examine some history of farming practices in proposing long-term conservation practices. Description of soil conservation practices that have been developed to overcome land degradation elsewhere in Southeast Asia and to define the most suitable that can be applied to conserve land degradation in East

Timor. Issues such as labour input, capital cost and maintenance, socio-economic and ecological aspects are the main factors to determine an appropriate model for soil conservation in this new country. The involvement of government and institutions will be the key to achieve the program of reversing land degradation. In particular, government and institution policies must provide incentives and take an important role in employing peasants for program implementation. Description of East Timor Geography and Farming Systems Geographic profile of East Timor including topography, climate and soil type is greatly impact on land degradation. In particular, elevation of more than 500 m above sea level receives abundant rainfall; this increases the risk of erosion and landslide. It is not only the soil condition, topography and climate that cause environmental problems; it is also human as an active, creative power, forming changes upon the physical environment (Ormeling, 1956). It is important, however, not to consider human as the single agent for conserving the environment, but rather understanding each factor (and coherent of all factors) become valuable for future conservation. Geography and farming systems existing in East Timor will be studied separately to consider their contribution to land degradation. Geography The physical environment of East Timor is greatly influenced by its geography, as it has been viewed that Timor Island is one of the most complicated in the archipelago (Metzner, 1977). Unbalanced geological forces lifted the island to form mountains and hills along its length. The topography of the island influences the climatic conditions between the coasts and that central uplands and mountainous areas. Low humidity in coastal areas, especially in the north of the island causes short periods of rainfall following by a long dry season. Thus, this area commonly experiences drought (Phillips, 2000). As the humidity increases with increasing elevation towards the mountains, the rainfall period increases. The submarine deposition of the island is indicated by a great formation of limestone (so called “Bobonaro scaly clay”) (Garcia et al., 1963 in Metzner, 1977). The Bobonaro scaly clay occupies almost half of East Timor. In the eastern part of the country, this soil is dominant in the upland areas, and is subject to soil erosion and landslide, which are major contributions to environmental hazards.

Figure 1: Location of Timor Island in the Southeast Asian and Indonesia Archipelago

Source: Phillips, 2000

Topography East Timor is the eastern half of the island of Timor and part of the Lesser Sunda Islands of the Indonesian archipelago (Figure 1). It is located to the northwest of Australia at a distance of about 500 km. The island lies on longitudes between 127o 22’ and 132o 25’ and latitudes between -8o 17’ and -10o 22’ with a general orientation of southwest to northeast (Phillips, 2000). The topography of East Timor is shown in Figure 2a. Estimates at the total area of East Timor vary. However, the total area is approximately 14,874 sq. km. This includes the main land area of 14,644 sq. km, the concave region of Oecussi of 78 sq. km, Atauro Island (Dili) of 141 sq. km and Jaco Island (Lautem) of 11 sq. km at the eastern end of Timor. FAO and WFP (2003) reports of crop and food supply assessment in East Timor indicate that 600,000 hectares of this land are suitable for crop and livestock production. Moreover, it was estimated that about 174,000 hectares are arable with an additional 124,000 hectares of bush gardens. About 1,065 sq km are devoted to irrigated land and productive forest was about 28,500 ha in 1996. The physical types of East Timor are well known as mountains and hills that lie among the central part of the island (Figure 2b). Figure 2: Topography (a) its physical types (b), areas prone to landslide and to flooding (c), and actual forest cover (d) of East Timor

a

b

N

c

d

Source: Internet (http://etan.org/timor/ETmap.htm) (a), Monk et al., 1997, cited in Phillips, 2000 (b, c and d). The physical types of East Timor are 2 – tidal swamps; 4 – meander belts; 7 – Fan and lahars; 8 – terraces; 9 – undulating rolling and hillocky plains; 10 – hills; and 11 – mountains, (Monk et al. 1997:50; original RePPProT).

Phillips (2000) states that the topography of East Timor is dominated by a massive central backbone of up to 3,000 metres of Ramelau Mountain dissected by deep valleys prone to flash floods. Figure 2b shows that the mountains extend almost from the centre to the coastline of the northern side without extensive plains, while to the southern side, on the other hand, mountains taper off some distance from the coastline. There are more perennial streams flowing to the southern coast that allow for more agriculture and irrigation. The southern side is more susceptible to flooding, while the rest is prone to land slide and erosion (Figure 2c). The figure indicates that the lower elevation (e.g. Lautem, Baucau and Balibo) are the only exceptions from landslide risk. Topography influences the weathering, depth, erodibility, infiltration and leaching of the soil. Steep slopes with high erodibility and low infiltration are vulnerable to surface runoff and erosion and, therefore, shallow soils. These all limit crop production. Phillips (2000) says that the outer-arc1 island is dominated by limestone; generally have lower, rounded hills with relatively infertile, alkaline soils. The better soils are the alluvial deposits that are found along the coasts and in depressions of for example lake or lacustrine basins surrounded by steeper, eroded land. Vegetation, flora and fauna Topography of the island can also influence the adaptability of East Timor’s habitats and climate. Obviously, there are two different climate seasons between northern and southern East Timor (see climate below). Five significant plant species or habitats occur between the northern, southern and eastern, and the mountain regions (Nunes, 2001). Moreover, Monk in Phillips (2000) suggests that the distribution of the vegetation is strongly influenced by the elevation and rainfall pattern. Plant species such as Eucalyptus alba, Tamarindus indicus and other dry land trees are dominant in the northern areas. Whereas plant species such as Canarium, Red wood (Pterocarpus indicus), Charia (Taona sureni) dominate in the eastern and southern side, although this varies. Some of the commercial species e.g. teak (Tectona grandis) are also found in these areas. In the mountains as well as upland areas, the dominating species are Eucalyptus urophylla and sandalwood (Santalum album). Santalum album was one of the main targets for trading during Portuguese settlement, thus this species is now depleted (McWilliam, 2003) as well as Casuarina equisetifolia. Phillips (2000) indicates that monsoon forest; one of the most sensitive tropical environments has been extensively replaced by savanna and grassland. Generations have repeatedly burnt the dry forests for hunting and shifting cultivation (McWilliam, 2003; Phillips, 2000; Metzner, 1977). Thus, the remaining vegetation is sparse (Figure 2d). Vegetation cover has been reduced by 30 percent to date (McWilliam, 2003). “The main consequences of the deforestation are loss of genetic resources and increased risk of erosion and flash floods resulting from bare hillsides” (Phillips, 2000). The fauna of East Timor include some species of mammals such as; Deer (Cervus timorensis), cusus, wild pigs and monkeys, reptiles such as crocodiles, snakes and lizards and birds such as lorikeets, land and sea eagles and pigeons. Some of these habitats have been the main target of East Timorese hunters mainly in the dry season when the natural vegetation has been burned off (Phillips, 2000; Nunes, 2001). 1

Also called non-volcanic Outer Arc by Audley-Charles (Metzner, 1977) which belongs to the islands of Nias, Mentawei, Sumba, Savu, Roti and Timor.

Climate Information about climatic conditions is crucial for environmental management and more efficient use of agricultural resources (Phillips, 2000). East Timor has two main climate seasons, which are a short wet season (wet monsoon); high intensity rainfall occurs between November and March, followed by a long dry season (dry monsoon) from April to October (IFAD, 2000). The relative humidity of both monsoons increases with an increase in altitude, thus extending rainfall duration in the mountains. There are mainly two rainfall patterns (IFAD, 2000 and FAO/WFP, 2003), which are the northern monomial rainfall pattern and the southern bimodal rainfall pattern. The northern areas are characterized by one rainfall peak during the four to six months of the wet season. Commonly, this occurs between December and February. In this area, the average rainfall is 500 – 1,500 mm, while at higher altitudes of above 500 m abundant rainfall (1,500 – 3,000 mm) is received. In the southern areas, there are two rainfall peaks, which appear within seven to nine months. The first peak appears between December and February and the second appears between May and June. The southern coast areas have an average annual rainfall of 1,500 – 2,000 mm, while higher elevations of above 500 m receive more abundant rainfall (1,700 – 3,500 mm). Heavy rainfall in the higher altitudes of 500 m above sea level increases the risk of erosion and landslide from this area to the lowland areas. In fact, sedimentation and flooding in the lowland areas are the result of soil losses from the upland areas. The altitude of the island influences the temperature from coastal areas to the central upland areas. Figure 3a indicates the correlation between altitude and temperature over the season. In fact, the highest mean monthly temperature of about 27oC is found in the coastal areas or lowest altitudes; the temperature decreases with increasing altitudes (Phillips, 2000). In the dry season, the maximum temperature ranges from 26 – 32oC and in wet season the maximum temperature ranges from 18 - 21oC (Nunes, 2001). Short rain season and high temperature in the coastal areas, particularly in the northern side, causes ardic (permanently dry) in this area (Figure 3b). Whereas, in the southern side, where two peaks of rainfall occur provide permanent moisture over the season. The highland areas remain permanently cool. Climate and topography greatly influence the variability of soil that determines land suitability for agricultural production in East Timor. Figure 3: Altitude and mean temperature correlation (a) and the climate of East Timor (b)

a

b

Source: Monk et al., 1997 (originally from RePPProT 1989a), cited in Phillips, 2000 Values in parenthesis are annual mean temperature.

Soil Types Many observations of crop production and environmental degradation have been made, whereas information about soil types is limited. Relatively little study of soil has undertaken during the Portuguese and Indonesian colonizations of East Timor. Metzner (1977) however provided information about soil types in his study of Baucau and Viqueque districts. Generally, geologists agree that the island of East Timor geological structure and evolution has to be recognised as one of the most complicated in the archipelago (Auley-Charles, 1968 in Metzner, 1977). Auley-Charles is a British geologist whose first treatise on Portuguese Timor (East Timor) in 1968 was based on three years field research from 1959 to 1961. More recently, Phillips (2000) has provided soil types of East Timor that were classified based on USDA classification. Figure 4 indicates the variability of soil types in East Timor (refer to Table 1 for figure description). The figure also suggests that the distribution of soil types vary from the coasts to central upland areas. Figure 4: Soil types of East Timor

Source: Monk et al., 1997, cited in Phillips, 2000 Although Garcia et al. (1963, in Metzner, 1977) indicated that generally soil types studied (in Baucau and Viqueque districts) were appropriate for agricultural purposes due to reasonably good soil fertility, adding fertilizers was recommended in some parts where soil fertility was inadequate. The traditional farming system of slash and burn on steep slope by peasants has been conspicuous. This has been led to increased losses of soil and soil fertility. Furthermore, past government policy that allowed people to continue to settle upland areas and encouragement of land use to increase crop production without conservation practices continues to pose environment hazards; (IFAD, 2000; McWilliam, 2003) accordingly fertility and biodiversity are declining. The following section provides simple descriptions of traditional farming systems existing in upland and lowland areas.

Table1: The description for Figure 4: Soil types classification

Source: Phillips, 2000

Farming System The East Timorese economy is based mainly on subsistence agriculture that has existed continuously over the years (Metzner, 1977) and it has low inputs and outputs (IFAD/WFP, 2003). The peasants use their traditional experiences in land use for crop production. This land use is then determined by local rainfall, environment and topography. The following will discuss traditional farming systems in the upland and lowland areas of East Timor with the sequences of agricultural operations and cropping provided in Figure 5. Upland Farming Systems Dry crops dominate the upland farming system. Some of the crops that are usually found here are maize, cassava, dry land rice (known as the staple food), potatoes, pumpkins, peas, vegetables, sisal, peanuts, mangoes, pineapple, citrus as well as intergrazing with livestock such as sheep, goats, buffaloes and horses (Metzner, 1977). The inter-cropping of maize, cassava and vegetable is found in the uphills particularly in the northern parts of the island. This area has a less fertile soil compared to the southern area. Shifting cultivation or bush fallowing is common in these areas. It occurs when the crop production is low. Thus, the land is left for about 3 – 5 years for fertility to improve before it is used again (IFAD, 2000). Although this farming system was traditionally practiced in a sustainable manner, current intensity of practice has led to considerable deforestation. This has led to much objection to the practice. In particular, extensive cultivation of the districts of Aileu, Ainaro and Bobonaro with widespread deforestation and population pressure on arable lands in the highland have led to land degradation (McWilliam, 2003). Intensive land use on the other hand continues to rise, as the arable land is limited for shifting cultivation. This continuous cropping increases the susceptibility of soil to raindrop splashing. The upland of Baucau district in particular has been subjected to unsustainable land clearing and cropping practices (McWilliam, 2003). In addition, massive soil losses have occurred as the consequence of intensive cultivation without improved management practices over the season. Lowland Farming Systems In East Timor, lowland or flat areas are considered as high crop production areas. The land is generally fertile and suitable for all crop production (van Cooten & Borell, 1999). Farmers traditionally utilize these areas according to water source and susceptibility to flooding and sedimentation. As rice is one of the most important staple foods, lowland areas are usually devoted to its production as much as possible when there is a good source of water; this includes rainwater, river water and ground water that can be readily supplied to the field. Thus, permanent wet rice cultivation is practiced (Metzner, 1977). Annual crops such as maize, cassava, vegetables and perennial crops such as banana, mango, coconut, candlenut and cocoa are also practised in lowland areas. These crops are generally established if the water source and soil conditions are unfavourable for rice cultivation. One of the most important soil properties is water-holding capacity which, if low, is unfavourable for rice cultivation. In these cases, annual and perennial crops can be established for permanent cultivation as the soil is relatively fertile. Although this soil is relatively fertile, some lowland areas are more likely to be affected by sedimentation and flooding from the upland areas. To simplify land degradation in East Timor, following will provide detail information about it. Land Degradation in East Timor As mentioned above, land degradation is one of the environmental problems that affect human life and biodiversity in East Timor. Types of land degradation vary across the island; and depend upon topography, climate, soil type and land use. The following will describe how these factors contribute to land degradation.

Figure 5: Calender of crop production in East Timor

Topography Mountains and hills in the central upland areas extend to the coast without extensive plains. This steep slope across the island is highly susceptible to soil erosion by water. Climate The variability of the climate of East Timor contributes significant land degradation. On the northern side, in general, there is relatively lower rainfall with a period wet season followed by a long dry season. Drought is a major contributor to land degradation in this area as it allows the burning of natural vegetation and grasses by the indigenous populations for hunting and shifting cultivation all of which increases the susceptibility of the soil to erosion. Wind erosion occurs in dry season, while water erosion occurs in the wet season. Some of northern areas are also affected by sedimentation and flooding from central upland areas. On the southern side, there are two rainfall peaks and hence permanently moist conditions prevail in this area. The area is considerably flatter than in the north and is the most productive land in East Timor. However, flooding and sedimentation from central upland areas often affect some of these areas. From the northern and southern point of view, it seems that central upland areas are the major contributor of the flooding and sedimentation in the lowland areas. In fact, high altitude of more than 500 m and steep slopes receive the highest rainfall in East Timor. Indeed high surface detachment, surface runoff, surface scouring and landslide increase particles losses from these areas and deposit them onto the lower areas. Soil type and land use In general, inceptisols (Phillips, 2000) that dominate the central upland areas are regarded as highly erodible soils. The increased human pressure on land use without supporting sustainable practices has increased this high susceptibility to erosion. In fact, low yields obtained from cropping are the result of soil and nutrient losses. The consequences of low yield and increasing population expand crop production towards forest areas. Moreover, deforestation also occurs, as the main source of fuelwood and housing material. To simplify the picture of land degradation, Table 2 provides an illustration of types of land degradation that exist in East Timor. These include landslide, drought and erosion including sheet and gully erosion, wind erosion, acidity, sedimentation, flooding and deforestation. Causes and description of these types of land degradation are also discussed. Landslide Landslide is a highly damaging event when it occurs. Figure 2c suggests that about 75 per cent of the island has landslide problem. The mass movement of soil destroys houses, crops, vegetations and animals. This occurs particularly in upland areas where high rainfall combines with steep slopes and highly erodible soil (Metzner, 1977). Metzner indicates that the deposition of the rubble in the riverbeds results in numerous sand and gravel bars as the result of landslide in the upland areas. More over, increasing human pressure on land use and cutting down trees along the river or springs and steep slopes increases the susceptibility of soil to landslide (Sundlund et al., 2001); this is probably due to deep rooted trees holding the soil together. For example, in Quelicai (Baucau district) there was one landslide more than 10 kms long where high population settlement existed. Intensive land use for cropping and high demand for fuelwood may have been the case of this landslide.

Table 2: Land degradation versus land use in East Timor Soil problem + Land use system Land degradation Upland/ Slope Lowland/ Flat Level of Possible causes due to land use Level of Possible causes due to land use occurrence systems occurrence systems Shifting Perennial Shifting Perennial Cultivation Cultivation Land slide High Low Low Low Low Moderate Sheet erosion Moderate Low Low High Moderate Moderate Gully erosion High Low Low Moderate Moderate Low Wind erosion Moderate Low Low Moderate Moderate Low Fertility decline High Low Low Moderate Low Moderate Acidity High Moderate ? ? Low ? Sedimentation None High Moderate ? Flooding None High Moderate Low Drought High1 Moderate Low High1 Moderate Low 2 Deforestation High High Low Moderate Moderate Moderate Social Problem Productivity Low Low Low Moderate to high Low3 Moderate Stability Low Low Low Moderate Low Moderate Sustainability Very low Low Low Moderate Low Moderate Equitability Imbalance Low Low Balanced Low Moderate between income and proportion of population Autonomy Low n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Solidarity High High 1 2 3 Particularly in northern areas of East Timor, Shifting cultivation towards forest areas is common, Soil relatively fertile ? Not sure - Not necessary; n.a. Not available

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Table 2: Types of land degradation and land use in East Timor

Soil erosion Erosion is one of the most obvious causes of land degradation in East Timor (Metzner, 1977). Increased slope and slope length increases surface runoff so that there is more detachment of surface particles and scouring (Hudson, 1995). For example, soil erosion has occurred in the upland area of Ossu where the peak of surface runoff has been observed (Metzner, 1977). In fact, steep slopes and slope length with low surface cover in this area has increased surface detachment to erosion. While Phillips (2000) views that although the rainy season in East Timor is short, it is of very high intensity and so concentrated that it leads to soil erosion. Over-grazing reduces infiltration rates and thus increases surface runoff and erosion (Metzner, 1977). In upland areas, the lack of knowledge which perpetuates traditional farming systems of slash and burn without conservation practices, increase soil erosion in these areas (IFAD, 2000; McWilliam, 2003). This leads to reduced soil fertility and yield. Shifting cultivation therefore increases in the upland areas. However, development of new fields by conversion forest, swamps and patches around springs into crop production in the central upland areas has been conspicuous (Metzner, 1977). Metzner indicates that “the removal of the forests at the watersheds will materially accelerate the erosion process and thereby deprive the local population of the little remaining land that is of agricultural value”. In particular, unsustainable land clearing and cropping practices in upland areas of Baucau is subject to soil erosion (McWilliam, 2003). Repeated burning of natural vegetation for shifting cultivation and hunting in the dry season has exposed the soil to erosion (Metzner, 1977). Although this occurs in all areas, it is more likely to occur in the northern areas where drought is normal particularly from May to October. The burning therefore, normally takes place from August to October when the grass and shrubs are dry. The soil is therefore exposed to heavy rainfall that occurs at the beginning of rainfall season in November so that soil erosion increases. Furthermore, my own observations indicate that a lack of knowledge and experience of farmers increases gully erosion. Peasants usually design waterway in inappropriate ways. Normally they are usually clearing waterway without grass cover to allow water to move or flow faster. However, this increases the scouring of surface soil to form gullies. Drought Figure 3b suggests that permanently drier conditions occur in the northern areas where short periods of rainfall are followed by a long dry period. Low humidity and high temperature in this area induce the land to drought problem. Moreover, the small island of Atauro to the north of Dili experiences drought problem in all areas (Phillips, 2000). Wind erosion As the peak of wind speed occurs during the dry season particularly in August and September, land clearing such slashing and burning exposes the soil not only to rainfall but also to wind. This is supported by the large amounts of dust filling in the air during the dry season of the year (Metzner, 1977). The northern side of the area is more likely to be affected by wind erosion, as the area is in drought and lacks cover. Colloidal clay and organic mater that is the seat of most of the soil’s fertility can be blown away by wind (Troeh et al., 1999). Fertility decline The decline in soil nutrients can affect crop growth and yield. Although peasants in East Timor use fallow systems in improving soil fertility for crop production, increasing population has been led to increase human pressure on land use (Metzner, 1977). Intensive or permanent cultivation continues to occur hence lowering soil fertility, which can be seen from the low yield or returns (Metzner, 1982). Furthermore, past government policies forced people to remain in upland areas creating increased human pressure on land use (IFAD,

2000). This led to massive soil losses due to continued cultivation on slopes, but without improved management practices. It is particularly important to understand that most of organic matter and nutrients e.g. N and P are found on the topsoil. Thus, these nutrients and organic matter are more likely affected by both water and wind erosion. As the nutrients or minerals are easily moved by water, they can be carried away easily. In the dry season, these nutrients and organic matter are easily blown away as the soil is not protected. This is because they are very fine or have very low density; so that they are easily lifted into the atmosphere and blown elsewhere. Acidity Although soil acidity problem is less mentioned in environmental problems in East Timor, this may be because this soil problem has not been studied. As a part of tropical areas, the heavy rainfall induces soils to become acid. Moreover, nitrification and the leaching of nitrate is one of the main causes of soil acidity as it releases hydrogen ions. In particular, Metzner (1977) indicates soil acidity could be developing under composting of young green grass that is richer in nitrogen. Sedimentation Sedimentation in downstream areas is one of the consequences of soil erosion (de Graaff, 1993). The formation of soil along springs or rivers has been a clear indication of sedimentation. In particular, Metzner (1977) indicates that rapid silting up of river mouths of (e.g. Seical river, Baucau) has occurred as a result of severe soil erosion from central upland areas such as Ossu and Quelicai sub-districts where heavy clay soil are visible throughout the area. These areas are where the highest surface runoff occurs. The sedimentation in Seical areas where the most productive land for rice production occurs usually affects rice growth every year. Flooding Figure 2c indicates that some part of the southern side such as Viqueque and Uatu Lari subdistricts (Viqueque district) and northern side such as Manatuto are affected by flooding (Phillips, 2000). Heavy clay soils areas are commonly subject to flooding (Metzner, 1977). Flooding and sedimentation in the lowland areas are the consequences of high surface rainfall, surface runoff and soil losses from bare soils of upland areas. Ormelling (1956) said that flooding was one of the causes of low crop production, especially paddy cultivation. My observations indicate that inappropriate watercourse design combined with unpredictable rainfall due to lack of climate information has led to flooding in lowland areas. Deforestation “The legacy of twenty-four years of Indonesian rule and of the long period of Portuguese colonial government before it, is one of neglect and depletion of the forest reserves and woodlands” (McWilliam, 2003). A dramatic disappearance of sandalwood was one of the obvious deforestation processes during the Portuguese colonial period. As the high value of sandalwood for market purpose in the past, Portuguese used this tree for foreign trading particularly to China and Europe (Sundlund et al., 2001). Moreover, the conversion of natural vegetation into coffee plantations, particularly in the areas of Ermera, Liquica and Aileu was substantial. Further deforestation occurred during the Indonesian occupation. In the era between 1983-4 when battle between the independence supporters (FRETILIN) and Indonesian army (Tentara Nasional Indonesia – TNI) occurred, people were forced to flee into the hills and forested areas where they struggled to survive. These were also the base areas for FRETILIN, the military pursued periods of aerial bombing and the chemical warfare using crop spraying drew a systematic damage on forested lands (McWilliam, 2003). Moreover, as the forests and mountains areas became a battleground, the conservation of the natural resources was strictly regulated by TNI due to security issues.

As hunger increased under Indonesian rule, people were allowed to increase food production using forests areas for cultivation. Widespread deforestation on steep slopes occurred everywhere in East Timor. The deforestation was also a traditional system of shifting cultivation such as slash and burn that had occurred for long periods before (Metzner, 1977). Extensive deforestation seems to have occurred in the post-independence era in 1999. The capital destruction by militia has left people living in starvation. Many houses were burned thus they have no access to food and cooking utensils. There was no forest policy to stop these people from cutting trees for housing, fuelwood, and crop production. My personal observation indicates that hills around the capital Dili where natural vegetation exists were the main source of fuelwood and housing material for most people post 1999. The cutting of trees occurred almost every day since this year when all infrastructures were destroyed by Militia (pro-Indonesia group) and the Indonesia army. Indeed deforestation has led to increased landslides, soil erosion, flooding and sedimentation. All these types of land degradation have contributed to the environmental hazards and decline in human living standards in East Timor. The disappearance of natural vegetation and biodiversity and the decline of soil fertility that leads to reduce crop production have brought East Timorese into a long period of starvation. This is particularly true in the upland areas where steep slopes combining with heavy rainfall and unsustainable farming systems continue to accelerate the problems. Soil conservation for East Timor must therefore be addressed to minimize this land degradation. This should be focussed on the upland areas where the most intense land degradation occurs. This land degradation can be minimized if appropriate technology delivery occurs. This paper will provide some of the conservation technologies that have been used to overcome land degradation over the world particularly in Southeast Asia. Detail descriptions of technology measures will be discussed in order to identify the most suitable methods that could be applied to East Timor to tackle land degradation in this newest country. Description of Soil Conservation Practices The complexity of factors contributing to land degradation as described previously indicates soil conservation will not be a simple matter. However, land degradation must be reversed to minimize its effect on human life and biodiversity. In general, there is no doubt that soil erosion and deforestation is conspicuous in upland areas (McWilliam, 2003; IFAD, 2000), thus any strategies made for soil conservation must deal with soil erosion. “A ‘strategy’ is the whole process of diagnosing land degradation, prescribing a ‘cure’ and implementing that cure” (Nuberg, 1993). In producing a strategy one should provide an appropriate technique or technology to reduce land degradation, but which also improves soil conditions for crop production (Morgan, 1981). Two widely employed strategies are mechanical methods and agronomic measures (Morgan, 1986). Morgan noted that the mechanical or physical methods depend upon manipulating the surface topography to increase soil resistance to erosion and that agronomic or biological measures are taken to protect of the soil by reducing the detachment and transport phases of erosion. In the late 1970’s, agroforestry appeared as a method which has contains a strong element of soil management (Young, 1997). This method has multiple functions which can reduce land degradation e.g. erosion, but also improve soil fertility as well as providing wood, fodder and fuelwood to satisfy family needs. These three methods will be discussed separately to obtain the most appropriate methods useful for conserving soil in East Timor. Mechanical Methods As mentioned previously, mechanical protection aims to modify the surface topography of soil to reduce its susceptibility to erosion. In particular, the effect of rainfall detachment on steep slopes is much higher than that on flat surfaces and surface runoff increases with increased of length of slope, thus mechanical

techniques aim to modify slope as well as length of slope. These modifications include methods such as earth moving including digging drains, building banks and levelling sloping land (Hudson, 1995). The technical decisions made depend upon whether the object is to reduce the velocity of runoff and wind, increase surface water storage capacity or safely dispose of excess water (Morgan, 1986). The following will discuss some of the techniques that have been to protect soil erosion as the main source of land degradation. Contour Bunds Contour banks are earth bunds 1.5 to 2 m wide. The soil is thrown across the slope to act as a barrier to runoff and to form a water storage area on their upslope side and to break up a slope into segments shorter than the length required to generate significant overland flow (Morgan, 1986). Morgan indicates that contour banks can only be suitable at slopes of 1 - 7o and is often used on small holdings in the tropics where the permanent buffer strip-cropping system occurs. The banks are spaced at 10 to 20 m intervals and are normally hand-constructed. Hurni in Morgan (1986) calculated the effectiveness of contour bunds to control erosion in Wallo Province, Ethiopia, and showed that they would only reduce soil loss sufficiently on the lowest of the slopes examined (Table 3). Terraces Terraces are earth embankments constructed across the slope to intercept surface runoff and convey it to a stable outlet at a non-erosive velocity, and to shorten slope type (Utomo, 1989; Morgan, 1986). Types of terraces are designed according to the purpose such as water management and soil management (Hudson, 1995). Figure 6 provides different types of terraces over different level of slopes. The figure shows of two broad conservation techniques, conservation banks and terraces. Conservation banks including broad based banks which can only be used at slopes of less than 8%, narrow based banks which can occur up to 8% slope and hillside ditches. The bench type terraces include progressive bench terraces, irrigated terraces, bench terraces, step terraces and intermittent terraces. Moreover, Morgan (1986) classified the designs into three categories; diversion terraces, retention terraces and bench terraces. These designs are simplified according to the lengths and grades for terrace channel and types of terraces. Table 3: Capacity contour bunds to reduce erosion over the different form of bunds and different level of slopes Bund form Slope 6o 14o Height (m) 0.20 0.20 Width (m) 1.90 0.70 Storage capacity (m2) 0.19 0.07 Spacing (m) 20 15 -2 -1 Predicted soil loss (kg m y )3.0 11.5 Capacity of bunds to Store soils (kg m-2) 11.4 5.9 Percentage of soil loss stored 100(1) 51(1) behind bunds in first and 100(2) 0(2) Second year Source: Hurni, 1984, cited in Morgan, 1986.

27o 0.20 0.40 0.04 10 11.5

33o 0.20 0.30 0.03 8 12.5

4.8 42(1) 0(2)

4.5 36(1) 0(2)

Figure 6: Types of terraces for different slopes

Source: Hudson, 1995. Diversion terraces The primary aim of diversion terraces is to intercept overland flow and channel it across the slope to a suitable outlet (Morgan, 1986). Morgan notes that the diversion should be run at a slight gradient of 1:250 to the contour. Some terraces identified are the Mangum terrace which is formed by taking soil from both sides of the embankment and the Nichols terrace which is constructed by moving soil from the upslope side only (Figure 6). These are broad based with embankment and channel occupying a width of 15 m with the bank width of 4 to 5 m. The narrow-based terraces are only 3 to 4 m wide with bank of 1 to 2 m, and therefore the bank must be steeper. Although Morgan (1986) indicates that the narrow-based terraces cannot be cultivated, Hudson (1995) suggests a wide bank of 1 to 2 m can be stabilized and protected with useful perennial crops, fodder and/or trees. The diversion terraces are not suitable for slopes greater than 7o (Morgan, 1986) which is similar to 12 per cent of slope due to the expense of construction and the impractically close spacing that would be required. Retention terraces are used where it is necessary to conserve water by storing it on the hillside (Morgan, 1986). Morgan indicates that water retention terraces should be ungraded or level and generally designed with the capacity to store runoff volume with a ten-year return period without overtopping. These terraces are normally recommended only for permeable soils on slopes of less than 4.5o (Morgan, 1986; Hudson, 1995). Bench terraces consist of a series of alternating shelves and rises and are employed where the grade of slopes is up to 30o or steep slopes that need to be cultivated (Hudson, 1995; Utomo, 1989; Morgan, 1986). This indicates that bench terraces can be employed at slopes up to 50 per cent or more of slope when the soil is relatively stable (Utomo, 1989). The riser is susceptible to erosion and therefore protective vegetation or a stone or concrete facing is needed. Morgan (1986) notes that the bench terrace system can be modified according to the nature and value of the crops grown (refer to Gusmao, 2003 for detail)2. 2

The fully report is now available in the Library of National University of East Timor (UNTL)

Waterways The purpose of waterways in conservation systems is to convey runoff at a non-erosive velocity to a suitable disposal point (Morgan, 1986). Thus, waterways must be designed carefully. The capacity of waterways must cope with the peak runoff from a storm with a ten-year return period. Three types of waterway can be incorporated in complete disposal systems (Hudson 1995; Morgan 1986), which are storm water drain or diversion drains, graded channel terraces or terrace channels and grass waterways (Figure 7). The figure Figure 7: The waterway design

Source: Hudson, 1995. indicates that runoff from the higher ground above the arable land is diverted away through the storm drain and the runoff from the arable land is diverted through the graded channel terraces. The runoff from these two sources is then discharged into a watercourse called a grass waterway. The dimensions of grass waterways must be sufficient to deliver drain water safely, so that overflowing and scouring downstream does not occur. Although the mechanical modification of surface soil can reduce soil erosion and increase water retention, it is considered as ineffective for several reasons: Particle detachment continues to occur under rainfall splash if the soil is unprotected, these measures are difficult for farmers to implement due to high capital cost and high labour inputs for construction and maintenance and shallow soils cause the exposure of less fertile soil by removing topsoil during terracing (Morgan, 1986). Morgan suggests that agronomic measures are an inevitable conservation measure to employ as they may be less expensive and deal directly with the problems of reducing raindrop impact, increasing infiltration, reducing runoff volume and both wind and water velocities. Agronomic Measures As bare soil is susceptible to soil erosion, surface cover is important for soil conservation (Morgan, 1986). The effectiveness of plant cover as a protection from erosion depends on plant density and morphology. In designing a conservation strategy based on the agronomic measures, row crops must be combined with the effective protection crops. The following sub-sections concern some of the agronomic measures to protect soils from erosion. Rotation Rotation is a simplest way to combine different crops within a consecutive time. The frequency of rotation system depends upon the severity of erosion (Morgan, 1986). Morgan notes that for minor erosion, cropping can be occur in every two years, whereas in areas of significant erosion, cropping can only occur every 5 to 7

years, though this largely depends on other factors like slope and rainfall. Under the cropping system soil organic matter that is important for aggregate stability decline. This increases the susceptibility of soil erosion, thus rotation with legumes or improving pastures are important. Legumes and grasses are suitable to be grown in rotation (Morgan, 1986). These provide a good soil cover, can maintain or improve soil organic matter and thereby increased soil fertility and aggregate stability (Hudson, 1981); the susceptibility of aggregates to rainfall splash therefore can be reduced. Moreover, Hudson suggests that rotation systems can break the build up of pests or diseases that might occur under permanent mono-culture. Hudson (1981) showed that a rotation of tobacco-grass-grass is more effective in Zimbabwe than two consecutive years of tobacco followed by four years of grass; the respective mean annual soil loss rates were 12 and 15 t ha-1. Shifting cultivation Shifting cultivation is a traditional method of improving or conserving soil fertility and reducing soil erosion in the tropics by rotating the location of fields (Morgan, 1986). Shifting cultivation is common in upland areas as soil erosion increases rapidly when the field is continuously used for cropping. Crops demand of nutrients and losses through soil erosion lead to reduced aggregate stability and thus increase in the susceptibility of the soil to rainfall splash and surface scouring from runoff. Shifting cultivation can restore aggregate stability when soil organic matter accumulation occurs. Morgan indicates that the critical factor in such systems is the length of the fallow period. The fallow period in West Africa is between 7 and 20 years according to Okigbo in Morgan (1986), higher fallow periods of 10 to 50 years have occurred in Thailand (Hurni in Morgan, 1986). Moreover, significant shortening of the fallow period occurs as increasing population pressure on land use for cash cropping increases. Grazing land management Rotation is normally practiced on grazing land, moving the stock from one pasture to another in turn, to give time for the grass to recover (Morgan, 1986). To avoid overstocking that may cause soil erosion Hudson (1995) suggested that grasslands should not generally be exploited to more than 40 to 50 per cent of their annual production and should be allowed to regenerate to provide a 70 per cent ground cover at the time of erosion risk (Fournier, 1972 in Morgan, 1986). Fournier said that overgrazing can lead to increase deterioration of the rangeland and the onset of erosion, undergrazing can result in the loss of nutritious grasses. Forest management The commercial exploitation of forest timber resources is commonly practiced as clear felling on a rotational basis. The highest erosion rates occur in the following logging operations (Morgan, 1986). However Morgan indicates that erosion rates decline in subsequent years either with natural vegetation regrowth so that averaged over twelve years or more the rates may be little different from those undisturbed land. For example Leaf in Morgan (1986) showed that in Fool Creek, Colorado, in the Rocky Mountains, average soil loss was 0.224 ton per hectare per year whilst logging and road construction was taking place in 1950, but as soon after these operations stopped the rate of erosion decreased. The average soil loss recorded in 1958 was 0.099 ton per hectare per year indicating that soil erosion was dramatically reduced by more than half comparing to that during logging and road construction. The natural regrowth of vegetation increases canopy interception of rainfall thus reducing rainfall splash energy and therefore surface or particle detachment. Moreover, regrowth of natural vegetation increases soil organic matter and hence raises aggregate stability and increasing the resistance of soil particle to detachment. For example, a much lower of soil loss of 0.048 ton per hectare per year observed from uncut forestland in the same area (Fool Creek, Colorado) compare to soil loss during logging and road construction.

Cover crops Cover crops are an important soil conservation measure to protect soil from both wind and water erosion (Morgan, 1986), retain soil moisture and provide nitrogen, for subsequent crops (Roberts, 1995). In the United States for example, they are grown as winter annuals and after harvest are then ploughed in to form a green manure. Some of the typical cover crops used are rye, oats, hairy vetch, sweet clover and lucerne in the north, and Australian winter peas, crimson clover, crotalaria and lespedeza in the south (Morgan 1986). Morgan indicates that the sowing broadcast of winter rye at a rate of 0.12-0.13 tons per hectare as early as possible in the autumn is practiced to control wind erosion successfully on the sandy soil of the northern Netherlands where sugar beet, potatoes and maize are grown. Time for sowing depends upon when the main three crops (sugar beet, potatoes and maize) are grown. Mid September sowing is possible for sugar beet and potatoes, whereas sowing with maize is delayed until after the harvest in October. Early sowing is important as a good cover must be obtained by the end of December when the climate is cold and for growth in February and March, the period when soil is dry and these are strong winds with low humidity. Some of the tropical groundcover under tree crops e.g. rubber to protect the soil from rainfall splash are Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopoganium mucunoides and Centrocema pubescences. Some of these covers are growth rapidly and can retain nutrients in the soil, but leaching can occur and leads to cause soil acidification. Extensive ground cover reduces ground access to the sunshine that is important for the main plants, thus cover may cause some plants to die (Morgan, 1986). Multiple Cropping Multiple cropping aims to increase production from the land, while it is also useful for soil erosion protection. The method involves either sequential cropping, growing two or more crops a year in sequence, or intercropping, growing two or more crops on the same piece on the soil at same time (Morgan, 1986). In Third World Countries particularly in the villages, multiple cropping is normally found in home gardens. This includes fruit trees such as banana, coconut, cocoa, mango, jackfruit, avocado etc, while two-thirds of home gardens are devoted to vegetables, especially root crops like sweet potatoes, yams, pigeon peas, groundnuts, dasheen, okra, pepper, maize, cassava and tomatoes (Utomo, 1989; Metzner, 1977 and 1982). Intercropping of cassava and maize reduces erosion. An experiment in Nigeria found advantages in a twostorey canopy, giving a higher canopy for interception than either cassava or maize alone (Lal, 1997). He argued that mixed cassava and maize established on a 6o slope reduced annual soil loss to 86 t ha-1 compared with 125 t ha -1 for cassava as a monoculture. A study from Nigeria found that annual erosion rate of 221 t ha1 for cassava alone on a slope of 15 per cent (Brown & Wolf, 1984). Brown and Wolf also indicate that continuous maize led to the highest soil erosion of 1970 t ha-1 compared to continuous wheat 1010 t ha-1 and was only 270 t ha -1 in maize-wheat-clover rotations. These suggest that either rotation with clovers or multiple cropping, both reduce soil loss significantly. Mulching Mulching is the covering of the soil with crop residues such as straw, maize stalks, palm fronds or standing stubble (Morgan, 1986). These cover materials protect the soil from raindrop impact and reduce the velocities of runoff and wind (Lal, 1997; Brown et al., 1986). During the dry season, mulch reduces wind speed on the soil surface and thus prevents the build up of saltation. In the rainy season, mulch functions as a barrier between soil and raindrops that can reduce rainfall energy before it reaches soil surface; particle detachment is thereby reduced. Moreover, Brown et al. (1986) indicate that mulch also has an important role in reducing water erosion by slowing surface runoff, reducing its scouring effect and allowing more time for water to infiltrate. Other functions of mulch are the reduction of evaporation, particularly in semi-arid or where temperatures are high. This retains moisture in the soil for crop. The effectiveness of mulching in reducing erosion was demonstrated by a field trial of Bort & Woodburn (1942, cited in Morgan, 1986) who found that on a silt-loam soil on a 7o slope, annual soil loss was 24.6 tha-1

from uncultivated or bare soil, but much lower at 1.1 t ha-1 when the land was covered with straw mulch applied at a rate of 5 t ha -1. Morgan (1986) suggests that mulch should cover 70 to 75 per cent of the soil surface. An application rate of 5 t ha-1 is sufficient to achieve this with straw. This is important, as lesser cover does not adequately protect the soil, while greater cover suppresses plant growth unless the plants have reached maturity, thus it may also offer sound weed control. An application at the required rate to control erosion can be made by preselecting conditions using Manning’s equation (refer to Gusmao, 2003 for detail) and the relationship between Manning’s roughness coefficient (n) and the mulch rate for maize straw determined by Foster, Johnson and Moldenhauer (1982, cited in Morgan, 1986): nm = 0.071 M1.12 interrill erosion 0.84 nm = 0.105 M rill erosion where nm is the contribution of the mulch to the overall roughness coefficient and M is the mulch rate kg m-2. Agroforestry Agroforestry is not a completely new idea but has been reinforced by the establishment of the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) which has focused attention on it and shown that it has great potential for sustainable and conservation development (Hudson, 1995). It is defined as a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, etc.) are grown in association with herbaceous plants (crops, pastures) or livestock in a spatial arrangement, a rotation, or both. There are usually both ecological and economic interactions between the trees and other components of the system (Nair, 1990; Young, 1997). Agroforestry has great potential in the eroded areas in steep areas, since it constitutes an excellent means of production and protection of these eroded soils (FAO, 1983). Furthermore, Nair (1990) has discussed some of the key concepts in agroforestry that are now well established and generally accepted. This includes: i) a collective name for land use systems involving trees combined with crops and/or animals on the same unit of land; ii) combining production with multiple outputs with protection of the resource base; iii) emphasis on the use of indigenous, multipurpose trees and shrubs; iv) it’s particular suitability for low-input conditions and fragile environments; v) it’s greater concern with sociocultural values than most other land-use systems; and vi) its structurally and functionally more complex nature compared to monoculture. Although agroforestry systems are quite adaptable to all regions of the tropics, this varies according to the agroecological adaptability (Table 4) that are the criteria used to classify agroforestry systems such as structure (composition and arrangement of the components), functions, socio-economic scale of management and ecological spread (Nair, 1990). These systems then determine the combination of the basic components, which are woody perennials (trees); herbaceous plants (crops) and animals, to be used. Table 4: Common agroforestry in tropics according to the agroecological adaptability Humid Lowlands Semi-Arid Lowlands Highlands Shifting cultivation Silvipastoral systems Soil conservation hedges Taungya (see below) Windbreak/shelterbelts Silvipastoral combinations Homegarden Multipurpose trees Plantation crop systems For fuel/fodder Multilayer tree gardens Intercropping systems Source: Nair, 1990 To simplify all the systems Nair divides agroforestry systems into three parts: agrisilvicultural which is the combination of crops and trees; silvipastoral which is the combination of trees and pasture/animals; and

agrosilvopastoral which is the combination of crops, trees and pasture/animals; each system has several subsystems by which each combination can be identified. Agrisilvicultural Systems Improved fallow This is an agroforestry systems based on rotational system of planted trees with crops. It is known as the modification of traditional swidden or shifting cultivation. The forest is cleared and crops are grown along side woody species for e.g. 2-3 years. After cropping the remaining trees are allowed to grow as bush fallow for 1-5 years or more (Young, 1997; Manu & Halavatau, 1994). The establishment of these woody species is aimed at nitrogen fixation; thus fast growing N-fixing species are preferred. Some of the species that have been used in recent experimental work for N-fixation with fast growing trees are Sesbania sesban (the most promising), Calliandra calothyrsus (acid soil tolerant), Tephrosia candida and Tephrosia vogelii (tolerant to infertile soil), Dactyladenia barteri (a component of fallow in West Africa), Gliricidia sepium, Inga species, Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania rostrate (intercropping of swamp rice) and Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) (Young, 1997). He provides an example of using Sesbania fallow in Kenya; roots accounted for 36% of the total non-woody biomass and contributed 32 kg N and 2 kg P per hectare. Relay cropping Relay cropping is “similar to improved tree fallow except that the trees are planted either at the same time as the crops or before they have been harvested, giving earlier establishment” (Young, 1997). There are two forms of relay intercropping (refer to Gusmao, 2003 for detail). Trees are planted at same time as the last crop in the cropping cycle, giving a ‘flying start’ to the fallow. Alternatively, the trees are planted annually without reducing crop growth space, after crops are harvested and the trees continue to grow through the dry season, making use of groundwater and radiation resources are then cut and leaf residues are left on the soil prior to the next cropping season. Sesbania species has been tested in the second system in Zamba, Malawi, where small farm size prohibits allocating land to annual fallows. The Sesbania was established at the same time as a maize crop and allowed to continue growing after the maize was harvested. At the end of the season, the leafy biomass was incorporated into the soil. This trial raised the yield to 2.6 t ha-1 compared with 0.7 t ha-1 on the control (Maghembe et al., 1997 in Young, 1997). The relay cropping has also been practised in upland and lowland areas of semi-arid eastern Indonesia through raised-bed cropping (van Cooten & Borrell, 1999). This is aimed at providing all-year ground cover. While raised-beds were established for food and cash crops to meet the basic needs of subsistence farmers, upland cropping on steep slopes can be replaced by a variety of tree species to provide additional food, fodder, fuelwood and medicines. Taungya This is the combination of stands of woody and agricultural species during the early stages of plantation establishment. The establishment therefore involves farmers and government agencies. The farmers are invited by the government forestry department to plant crops on forestland (Young, 1997). While farmers establish intercropping, they are required to take care of the young trees. The intercropping continues to occur for up to about 3 years or more as long as the trees have no effect on crop growth i.e. by shading crops and preventing further growth. The woody trees continue to grow for the normal forest cycle, which is often 15 years or more. This taungya system is widely practised in South-East Asia particularly in the villages e.g. in Thailand (Nair, 1990). While Alexander (cited in Young, 1997) has shown that an early taungya establishment amongst upland rice provides protection against erosion. Alley cropping This is also called hedgerow intercropping. Woody species are planted in hedges or in more or less parallel rows, with the crop plants closely spaced and grown in the alleys between them (Young, 1997). The rows are normally 4 – 10 m apart. As fast growing woody species for hedges are recommended, they are regularly

pruned. The pruning may either be removed for fodder, fuelwood, or retained on the soil for N-cycling. Alley cropping or hedgerow intercropping has been used where pasture and animals are included as a rotational element as well as intercropping between the hedges. An alley cropping system in Malawi is to sow tree seeds directly between rows of crops, giving spacing between hedgerows of less than 1 m (Young, 1997). In Indonesia and the Philippines in particular, alley cropping has been practised in upland areas as contour cropping or contour hedgerows (refer to Figure 9c below). The most common species for the alley cropping are Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium; other common species are Calliandra calotyrsus, Saman siamea, Flemingea congesta, Sesbania spectabilis, Inga edulis, Erythrina poeppigiana, Sesbania sesban; and occasional species are Faidherbia albida, Peltophorum dasyrrachis, Acacia indica, Albizia julibrissin, Albizia lebbeck, Dactyladenia barteri, Erythrina caffra, Erythrina orientalis, Erytrina sp., Inga sp., Leucaena diversifolia, Paraseianthes falcataria, Sena reticuluta and Tephrosia candida (Young, 1997). Young indicates that the most preferable species for hedgerow has a high rate of survival, is able to withstand repeated pruning, has large biomass production, has high nitrogen fixation has leaf litter with a high nutrient content which undergoes moderately rapid decomposition and presents a low competitive effect for water. Leucaena leucocephala is considered as a high biomass producer and has high nitrogen fixation but it has been found to be too competitive for water. While Gliricidia sepium has some of the desirable properties of Leucaena, it has less root distributions in the topsoil and is less competitive with crops. Deep rooting can utilize nutrients lost from the topsoil as well as ground water. For economic considerations, a 5-year trial of hedgerows of Leucaena-maize on an acid and infertile soil in the central of Burundi was made (Young, 1997). No yield advantage hedgerow systems occurred over controls for the first 3 years. Significant yield advantages of the hedgerow of 20% were achieved in years 4 and 5. In the Philippines, hedgerows established in areas of upland rice reduced soil loss by 25%, while increasing the rice yield by 25% and corn yield by 100% (Nuberg, 1993). In Indonesia, the use of contour rows of Leucaena to prevent soil erosion and to create indirect terraces has been practiced for long period of time (Piggin, 2000). Piggin notes that Leucaena clippings also provide mulch to crops such corn, peanuts and mung beans that are established on the terraces. This agroforestry system is widely promoted as an effective and low-cost method of soil erosion control by conserving annual crop vegetation on steep slopes (Shively, 2000). Multilayer tree garden This is also called a multistrata system and consists of multi-species, multilayer, dense plant associations with no organising planting arrangements. Trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants are grown together in a dense, intimate spatial mixture (Young, 1997). The woody plants can vary greatly in their different forms and growth habitat. Non-woody, herbaceous crop plants usually disappear unless they are shade tolerant e.g. chilli crops. Combinations such as timber trees, coconut, jackfruit, breadfruit, mango, avocado, coffee, banana, candlenut, palm trees etc is found under a multilayer tree garden. These protective systems are an effective soil conservation measure as they maintain soil properties, achieve high rates of nutrient cycling, protect soil against erosion particularly on the sloping soils where multilayer tree gardens are established and also provide for fauna. They form the most sustainable use of sloping lands in the humid tropics (Young, 1997) and the tree gardens can produce timber, fuelwood, oils (e.g. candlenut), fruits, nuts, building fibre, papaya, medicinal plants, spices and beverage products as well as ornamental for the home and temple. Multilayer trees on cropland Scattered trees are established according to a systematic pattern on bunds, terraces or plot field boundaries (Nuberg, 1993). These can be used as protective trees and for productive functions. They can be used for timber, fuelwood, fruit, fodder, provide shade, fencing, social values and are also commonly used as plot demarcation when it is called boundary planting. The crops are grown under the trees, which are commonly integrated with the animals. This agroforestry system is usually found under subsistence farming and may be

combined with shifting cultivation when some trees are left standing after clearance (Young, 1995). The standing trees can be useful for some climbing crops and are also good for soil properties. Plantation crop combination There are many arrangements into which plantation crops can be integrated as an agroforestry system. These include integrated mixed of plantation crops (interpolated system), mixtures of plantation crops in some regular arrangement (coincident or overlapping), shade trees for plantation crops (coincident), and intercropping with agricultural crops (intermittent or concomitant) (Nuberg, 1993). Some of the plantation crops that are commonly grown in these agroforestry systems are coffee cacao, coconut, tea, fruit trees, fuelwood or fodder species; and non-woody trees are usually shade tolerant e.g. pineapple and papaya are growing under coconut. Trees in soil conservation and reclamation Wide ranges of multi-purpose and fruit trees are planted on the potentially erodible soil such as bunds (banks) and terrace risers, ditches and strips to stabilise and conserve soil. Other fodder or grass species may also be useful to stabilise on vegetative strips to provide complete cover and use of the ground. Such intermittent (Figure 9) systems are very effective in sloping areas especially in the upland areas where degraded, acid soils and sand dunes occur. In India, land remains permanently under forest for conservation and water supply, it is reclamation forestry. On the other hand, it becomes agroforestry after an initial period of soil recuperation under forest; the land is restored to some form of production or multiple uses (Young, 1997). Home garden Home gardens are common in most (non-urban) regions, especially in areas where high population density occurs. These occupy small areas of land that are close to the homestead and provide a large number of different plant and animal products, primarily for household consumption (Young, 1995). The dominant woody species are fruit trees, trees for timber and fuel and vines, while the ground crops are shade tolerant. Densely planted trees and ground cover give excellent soil protection as well as fodder, fuelwood and fruit productions. Shelterbelt and windbreak Trees are planted in lines around farmland and plots to provide shelter, shade, live fencing and boundary demarcation. In South East Asia in particular, these are commonly used as terrace stabilization on steep slopes on farmland (Nair, 1990). Some fruit trees, timber and fuel trees can be established for this purpose and provide resources for the household. As the trees mature, they are very useful windbreaks. Hence this can reduce wind erosion during the dry season and crop damage e.g. maize destroyed by cyclones. Windbreak can also reduce water evaporation thus retaining more in soil for crop growth and for them. Fuelwood production Fuelwood species can be inter-planted on or around agricultural lands (Nuberg, 1993). Leucaena glauca or Leucaena leucocephala, so called Lamtoro that originated in tropical America is a good source of firewood in Indonesia and East Timor (Donner, 1987; Metzner, 1977; Ormeling, 1956). Other uses of Leucaena species are charcoal production; leaves and husks are a source of green fodder, rich in protein, an important energy-giving feed. Other benefits of fuelwood establishment are fencing, shelter, boundary demarcation and shade. In some circumstances they are grown as woodlots as they are well adapted to all ecological regions.

Silvipastoral Systems Trees on rangeland or pastures These are also called parkland systems. Trees grow on rangeland in an open mixed spatial system (Young, 1997). The trees are naturally scattered according to some systematic patterns on rangeland or pastures. The components in such a system occur in coincident temporal arrangement adapted to extensive grazing areas. The trees provide shelter for grazing animals and often influence the soil and growth of grass beneath them. Protein banks Trees are planted as blocks on farm or rangeland and managed for fodder production. The fodder production is usually leguminous and can be arranged as separate blocks as a source of cut-and carry fodder or where animals are allowed to graze in the block. The grass may also be grown among the fodder trees. In the areas where overgrazing occurs, especially in dry season, fodder trees or shrubs are established to provide reserve fodder during the critical season (de Graaff, 1993); this can also make productive use of areas of poorer soil on the farm (Young, 1997). Barlow et al. (1990) and Ormeling (1956) note the high protein content of ‘giant’ lamtoro leaves which is one of the leguminous shrubs used to feed cattle in the eastern Indonesia; such fodder has achieved live weight gains of some 0.5 kg per day. Plantation crops with pastures and animals Tree or shrubs are grown in combination with pastures. This is the common tropical plantation crop that is relatively wide-spaced allowing for the development of pastures and grazing of cattle. For example, in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, under the coconut trees where grass is established, cattle are allowed for grazing (Nair, 1990). Agrosilvipastoral Systems This includes home gardens involving animals and multipurpose woody hedgerows that have been described above. Other Systems Entomoforestry Entomoforestry consists of combinations of trees with insects. The main systems produce honey, silk and shellac. Apiculture, the use of trees (e.g. Acacia sp.) to raise bees for honey, is common in all regions, but honey production depends on the feasibility of apiculture or agro-ecological adaptability (Nair, 1990). Silkworm culture uses mulberry trees (Morus spp.). Shellac production is based on a parasitic insect-tree reclamation relationship. “In that the trees remain permanently, there are likely to be favourable effects on soil” (Young, 1997). Aquaforestry This includes trees which are divided into two subtypes; these are marine aquaforestry (e.g. management of mangroves (Rhizophera and Avicennia spp.) to combine production of wood with fish or shellfish) and freshwater aquaforestry of trees e.g. planting of sesbania spp. around fishponds so that the litter enriches the water. The trees can be well integrated with the other intensive food production systems such as pigs, poultry and vegetables. The trees can also stabilise the bunds around fishponds (Nair, 1990). The establishment can also provide shade and shelter. Aquaforestry can be occurred in lowland areas.

Figure 8: Processes by which trees improve soil.

Source: Young, 1995 Agroforestry and the soil Agroforestry systems discussed above have been found and practiced over the countries particularly in Southeast Asia. As the integration of crops or animals with trees has assumed important role in restoring soil fertility, Figure 8 illustrates the processes by which soil can be improved by trees and possible effects of trees and shrubs (refer to the Table 5 for summary).

Table 5: Processes by which trees maintain or improve soil fertility Processes which increase addition to the soil Maintenance of soil organic matter, through carbon fixation in photosynthesis and its transfer via decay of litter and roots Nitrogen fixation, by many legumes e.g. Leucaena and Sesbania and non-legumes e.g. Casuarina Nutrient uptake: the taking up by tree roots of nutrient released by rock weathering Atmospheric inputs: the provision by trees of favourable conditions for inputs by rain and dust, including transmission by through fall and stem flow Increased water infiltration, through better soil physical properties and effects of roots Water retrieval: taking up of water from depth by tree root systems Processes which reduce losses from the soil Protection from erosion and thereby from losses of organic matter and nutrients Nutrient retrieval and recycling: the trapping and recycling, by tree roots and mycorrhiza, of nutrients, which would otherwise be lost by leaching Reduction in the rate of organic matter decomposition, by shading and mulching Reduction of water loss from evapotranspiration, by shade and litter Increased water storage capacity, through better soil physical conditions Processes which affect soil physical conditions Maintenance of soil physical properties through organic matter and effect of roots Penetration of compact or indurated layers by roots Modification of extremes of soil temperature, by shade and litter Processes which affect soil chemical conditions Reduction of acidity, or rate of acidification, through basis in litter Reduction of salinity and sodicity, by trees in association with other management measures Reduction of soil toxicities caused by pollution Soil biological processes and effects Production of leaf litter of high quality, containing a balanced nutrient supply, and its transfer to the soil by litter decomposition Improved activity of soil fauna Improvement in nitrogen mineralization through the effect of shade Increased availability of phosphorus through mycorrhizal associations Root nodulation: increased nodulation on roots of nitrogen fixing trees in close proximity to roots of non-nitrogen-fixing plants, with possible direct transfer of nutrients between rot systems Exudation of growth-promoting substances by the rhizosphere Source: Young, 1997

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The following will provide an overview of technologies used to control soil erosion over many countries. The figures suggest that there are some combinations of the technology measures (mechanical, biological and agroforestry measures) that have been discussed above to tackle soil erosion. This is particularly appropriate in the hilly areas, but can also be useful in lowland areas. Figure 9: Possible technologies outlined for soil erosion control

Barrier hedges of double rows of Leucaena with Maize developing naturally into terraces

Leucaena planted with 90cm spacing in furrows between maize developing into terraces, Malawi

Trees on conservation works, Malawi. Fruit trees on grass strips and Leucaena on marker ridges

Trees on conservation structures, Cameroon and Kenya

Figure 9: (continued)

Sand dune stabilisation

Leucaena intercropping, Philippines

Alternative to shifting cultivation, NE India

Trees on rises of originated terraces, Nepal

Possible development of reclamation forestry into productive use by selective clearance of contour strips

Contour barrier hedges with trees on grass strips, Philippines

Source: Young, 1995 Agroforestry and Earthworks in East Timor It is important to review technologies for reversing land degradation that already exist in East Timor so that those discussed previously can be adjusted accordingly. Table 6 shows agroforestry and earthworks currently existing in East Timor and the expected responses to their development in different landuse systems. In general, some agroforestry systems and earthworks exist, but they are poorly managed. This suggests that agricultural technology has developed little since the study by Metzner (1977) which observed that little agricultural technology had been developed. Agroforestry Agroforestry systems have traditionally been developed by farmers in East Timor. Table 6 indicates the type of agroforestry systems practiced under each land use system. These include alley cropping, improved fallow, multilayer tree garden, plantation tree combination, trees in soil conservation and reclamation, fuelwood plantation and integrated livestock. However, these agroforestry systems are not well developed in either upland or lowland areas. This could be because of lack of information, knowledge and experience about their importance for soil conservation, crop production and biodiversity. This poor level of adoption of agroforestry practices and unsustainable land use lead to increase soil erosion, reduce fertility and yield, particularly in upland areas. Shifting cultivation in these areas is therefore potential high in its response to technology development; shifting cultivation in lowland areas is moderate as the soil is relatively fertile for crop production.

Table 6: Agroforestry and earthworks in East Timor: their current existence and expected response from development in different land use systems Technology Land use system Upland/ Slope Lowland/ Flat Level of response to technology Level of response to technology Level of current Level of current development development existence existence Shifting cultivation Perennial Shifting cultivation Perennial Agroforestry Alley cropping Low High High Low Moderate Moderate Improved fallow Low High High Low Moderate Moderate Taungya n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Multilayer tree Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate garden Plantation tree Low High High Low Moderate Moderate combination Trees in soil Low High High Low Moderate Moderate conservation and reclamation1 Fuelwood Low High High Low Moderate Moderate plantation Integrated Low High High Low Moderate Moderate livestock Earth Work Bench terraces Poor High Moderate Not needed None Contour bank Poor High Moderate Not needed None Waterways Poor High Moderate Poor None 1

this can only possible to develop for conservation if the land is belong to the government or provide incentives for landholders. n.a. not available - not necessary

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Earth works Land modification by earth works has also been developed by farmers in traditional ways. This is particularly true in the uplands or areas of steep slope where land has been pressed into crop production (Table 6). These include bench terraces, contour banks and waterways. Terraces for example, are usually arranged by farmers who place rocks across the slopes in a way which traps surface runoff and prevents erosion. However, the performance of these structures is poor because of the erratic, torrential rainfall combined with poor engineering expertise. Furthermore, as earthworks needs great labour input and capital cost, they are rarely practised by the farmers whose land is considered the most vulnerable in East Timor. Traditional slash and burn is the most significant contributor to land degradation in upland areas (IFAD, 2000), while also increasing saltation of lowland areas (Metzner, 1977). High soil erosion and reduction in soil fertility in the upland areas are obvious causes of low yields; although the lowland areas can be affected by sedimentation and flooding from upland areas, higher yields are usual. As the consequence of this, the poorest people are found in upland areas. To minimize soil erosion from upland areas one should improve farming systems in these areas. Furthermore, agroforestry systems which are feasible for farmers to practice should be promoted in upland areas. In particular, alley cropping could be important as it has almost no effect on the size of cropping area, but has improved the soil and yield. Soil conservation Policies and Implementation Soil erosion is the greatest problem in the upland areas where highly erodible soils receive high intensity rainfall; conservation measure that has been defined above therefore must be focussed on these areas. Soil conservation is “an investment in maintaining and enhancing the future productive capacity of the soil” (Pandey, 2001). Pandey suggests that the sustainability of agriculture critically depends on the adequacy of such investments. This investment then depends upon policy and institutional programs that play an important role in soil conservation. As a new country, the policies formulated in East Timor must address several aspects in encouraging farmers to adopt the conservation practices that have been discussed in the previous chapter. These aspects include Political aspects including political commitment and legislation, institutions e.g. NGOs including international and national NGOs (refer to Gusmao, 2003 for current I/LNGOs in East Timor), social aspects including the effect of human pressure on land use and land tenure and economic aspects. Before going further to the policies, it is probably important to look at farmer decision to adopt soil conservation. Garcia (2000) provides guidelines for this. She suggests that ‘understanding the decision-making process of the farmers with regard to soil erosion abatement is an essential take-off point in development policy instrument that will achieve conservation objectives’. To tackle land degradation and erosion one should apply conservation policies and implementation. However, the conservation seems not that easy as the conservationists thought. It is because land degradation especially soil erosion not only caused by inappropriate farming systems itself, but also by socio-economic, institutional, physical and political factors (refer to Gusmao, 2003 for detail). As these factors influence conservation practices, every single factor needs to be considered in policy development to guide them. The information collected suggests that a multidisciplinary approach is required. Another most important feature of policy development is that it must involve farmers in decision-making, as they will be the bases in program implementation.

It is obvious that long-term nature of the benefits of soil conservation and short-term low earning in production and income is a challenge in encouraging conservation practices. Involvement of institutions to provide incentives has been a good way of overcoming this. Other alternatives for conservation and sustainable farming systems must be promoted to encourage farmers. These can be systems which have no effect on the size of the cropping area or crop production. For example agroforestry systems such as alley cropping have been found not to affect cropping area, but yield improvement can be achieved 3-4 years after establishment (Young, 1997). Off-farm employment is another option to reduce human pressure on land use. This can only occur where there are enough non-farm based jobs provided with adequate earning. Other important issues that also need to be addressed are training, education and research. Provision of training for those who serve farmers e.g. local NGOs and trainers or extensionists will be useful to guide conservation practices. Research can strengthen the conservation practices; while socio-cultural issues must be studied further to adjust conservation strategies and their implementation. Summary and Recommendation Summary After further discussion of land degradation in East Timor, its causes, defining technology measures to overcome it, institutional involvement in adoption of technologies it should now be possible to sum up these steps. East Timor has experienced land degradation for a long period. Political and economic dominations of the past had paid little or no attention to the East Timorese environment. Land degradation has been one of the major contributions to environmental problems and has affected human life and natural biodiversity, particularly in the era post independence. Geographically the island is vulnerable to land degradation. Geological imbalance has lifted the island to form mountains and hills (Auley-Charles, 1968 in Metzner, 1977) that extend from the central upland areas up to coastal areas without extensive plains except on southern side of the island (Phillips, 2000). Uplifted land consists of high limestone deposition, which is regarded as highly erodible (Garcia et al., 1963 in Metzner, 1977). The variability of climate in East Timor contributes to land degradation. On the northern side there is low annual rainfall with a short wet season followed by a long dry season. This induces drought periods that lead to wind erosion as strong winds occur at the same time, particularly between August and November. Furthermore, burning of natural vegetation for hunting and shifting cultivation occurs as the result of the drought; this increases the susceptibility of the soil to erosion leading disappearance as well as disappearance of natural vegetation. On the southern side on the other hand, there are two peaks of rainfall that provide permanent moist conditions and this is regarded as the most productive area in East Timor. Vegetation cover in this area is well maintained, thus soil erosion is not the main issue. However, some of this area is often affected by flooding and sedimentation from central upland and mountain areas. Heavy rainfall in the central upland and mountainous areas is the main cause of soil loss from these areas through landslide and soil erosion and subsequent deposition in lowland areas. Traditionally, the indigenous East Timorese have settled in the hills and mountainous areas. Shifting cultivation for subsistence agriculture has often been practised in the upland areas with long periods of fallow. More recently however, fallowing has been reduced because of economic pressures and rising

population in some areas (Phillips, 2000). Farmer lack of knowledge and experience has increased pressure on land that is highly vulnerable to soil erosion but without any conservative practices. Notwithstanding of the effects of the traditional farming systems of slash and burn, farmers choose their family survival and household security as their most important priority. Regardless of the effects of such unsustainable farming system, they gain a little food to feed their family from farming. Indeed, year after year, unsustainable farming systems using slash and burn in steep upland areas continues to cause erosion and landslide and losses of biodiversity and yield. The low yields prompt the expansion of cropping areas into forested areas so that deforestation for crop production is common place in East Timor. This destruction was even more intense during the Indonesian occupation due to political and economic considerations. This destruction continues to rise in post Independence 1999. In fact, vast soil losses from the upland or hills and disappearance of natural vegetations have been the most contributed of land degradation and environment disaster (McWilliam, 2003). Deforestation will continue to rise as it continues to be the single source as fuelwood and housing for most people in East Timor with no available alternatives. Unsustainable farming system of slash and burn will also continue to increase soil erosion when alternative sustainable farming systems for better ecological outcomes and secure income have not been developed. To start with, there was a great willingness of the East Timor government and institutions to tackle environment problems in the post independence period that can be seen from the National Conference on Sustainable Development in East Timor in 2001. In general, the outcome of the conference recommended that development conservation measures must be implemented as an investment to overcome environment problems important for the future of the country. However, a new country lacking human resources, experience, research and scientists faces great challenges in how to tackle an ongoing environment disaster. Little progress has been made by international and local NGOs to defeat land degradation. This project paper suggests with three appropriate conservation technologies to overcome land degradation that have been practised globally but particularly in Southeast Asia where the topography and climate are similar to East Timor. These technologies are mechanical measures, biological or agronomic measures and agroforestry systems. In general, these technologies are appropriate to the climate and topography of East Timor to minimize land degradation, whereas some of these are may not accessible due to labour input, capital cost, expensive maintenance, its effects on short-term income (important to answer family survival). In addition, mechanical measures e.g. terracing are used to modify slope steepness which renders soil susceptibility to rainfall splashing, surface runoff and scouring. Thus, this technology involves high labour input, capital cost and expensive maintenance. It is also arguable that surface modification may expose subsoil to low fertility that could affect short-term income. These all have been regarded as inaccessible to farmers (the most vulnerable) in East Timor. Furthermore, low income in the short term is not an encouragement to farmers. Biological measures are regarded as cheap and applicable in reducing soil erosion, may not be the most appropriate to address the problem as they not provide additional income for family basic needs. On the other hand, these measures can be achieved using agroforestry systems. Agroforestry can improve soil fertility and thus increase the yield, surface cover and infiltration as well as reducing rainfall splashing and surface runoff; soil erosion can therefore be reduced. Agroforestry can also provide additional income from fruits, fuelwood and fodder for animals as well as increasing biodiversity. This can be regarded as an accessible and encouraging technology that provides the most appropriate answer to family survival. To apply conservation measures, there must be policies to guide their implementation. Political, institutional, social and economic factors greatly influence conservation policy. Thus, these must take into account in any natural resources management policy development.

There must be a political willingness of the government to support soil conservation as an investment in the basis of future investment of the country. The government support can be in form of providing adoption or incentives to farmers to practice agroforestry systems. The government should establish Community Based Organisations (CBOs) for resource management and must also support local NGOs able to work with farmers to establish agroforestry programs. As a new country with a lack of funding, East Timor government should cooperate with donor Countries and Institutions e.g. International NGOs for the design and implementation of institutional policies. Overall, incentive approach has been considered as a good adoption in encouraging farmers for conservation implementation. In fact, traditional approaches of top down planning, one way information transfer from extentionists, a high capital input for conservation practices developed by researchers working apart from farmers has been disappointing (Kiara in Enters, 2001; Black et al., 2000). However, many successful conservation practices have been obtained from community-based land management approaches which two-way information flows exist. Moreover, long term funding commitment to the promotion of smallholder agriculture through incentives must be guaranteed. These provide free use of equipment, seed, nursery-grown seedlings, adequate market and transport systems, strong agricultural research and extension programs; these will be the key in agroforestry development. Extensionists in particular must be trained to supervise farmers in program implementation. While for longterm conservation and environment awareness, the East Timor government through the Minister of Education and Training must provide subjects related to environmental and conservation at schools particularly Senior High School and Universities. Developed and strengthened research must centre on the avoidance land degradation so that reliable method could be devised to tackle this environmental problem. Recommendations Some recommendations have been outlined by JDM (2002) (Gusmao, 2003). Other recommendations that also need to be considered at the end of this project are: Ø This project concludes with the observation, from Southeast Asia particularly, that soil conservation technologies that could be used in East Timor must be based on socio-economic and ecological conditions. It is strongly recommended that for the future of conservation in East Timor cooperation is needed with a research centres so that further studies can define the most appropriate technologies. This research centre could initially be one which already exists in the tropics but which ultimately needs local advice. Ø The socio-cultural impact on land use should be studied further in the field. Ø Government policy should encourage community-based organizations or groups particularly those groups active in resource management. Ø There must good communication systems between government and NGOs (International, National and local) to avoid duplication and misleading information in project delivery. Ø Create an appropriate model of extension systems where two ways information flows exists. Ø From the social aspects, young farmers may more likely to use conservation for the future benefits, while older farmers feel reluctant for this programme. Similarly; big families may tend to apply conservation while small families may not. Thus, a long-term fund would be useful for these older and smaller families to use their land in conservative ways. Ø Property right and tenure must be clear to encourage farmers to utilize land sustainably. Ø Government and donors should also create off-farm jobs with appropriate earnings to reduce the human pressure on land use. Provision of appropriate loans for farmers to develop small-scale business, particularly in areas where high intensity of land use for cropping occurs, will be useful.

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