1993

Executive Research Project S86

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A Cultural and Ethical Evaluation

Captain

Charles D. Wurster U.S. Coast Guard

Faculty Research Advisor Colonel Gail I. Arnott, USAF

The Industrial College of the Armed Forces National Defense University Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. 20319-6000

DISCLAIMER

This research report represents the views of the author and does not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, the National Defense University, or the Department of Defense. This document is the property of the United States Government and is not to be reproduced in whole or in part for distribution outside the federal executive branch without permission of the Director of Research and Publications, Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C. 20319-6000.

MYERS-BRIGGS A CULTURAL

TYPE

INDICATOR:

AND ETHICAL

EVALUATION

INTRQDUCTIQN

The Myers-Briggs the world.

Type Indicator

As a "subject"

is in widespread use throughout

of the indicator,

I became

in learning more about the "behind the scenes" popular paper-and-pencil

personality

and ethics.

methods used to validate in to a v a r i e t y universality

the instrument.

causes of those variations, cultural Briggs

groups.

of ethics.

for discrimination, ethical

The paper concludes repeatable,

type.

variations

the

in type results,

of the results

to the

the potential

viewpoint--including

and employment-related

faking,

issues.

that while the MBTI is a popular, instrument

to

of the basis of the Myers-

topics include

the "subject's"

and useful

only with volunteer

including:

serves as an introduction

The ethical

uses of the results,

of the

This serves as a lead-

and extrapolation

A brief discussion

theory and instrument

discussion

issues

cross-cultural

of this

cross-cultural

There is a short discussion

of cross-cultural

of type,

details

instrument.

This paper focuses on two areas of interest: applications

interested

valid,

it must be used carefully and

subjects who subsequently verify their own

Most importantly,

the MBTI type should never be used to

segregate people

"in" or "out" especially in employment

decisions.

BACKGROUND

MBTI--what is it?

"[The MBTI] describes the great variety of talents, and it emphasizes the ways in which some people are not Just different from each other but opposite and complementary, i.e. their strengths are our weaknesses and vice versa. Its specific uses, primarily through counselling, include te-m-buildlng, career planning, time management, communication and organization development." (Bayne 48)

The MBTI is a personality evaluation

instrument--sometimes

incorrectly called a test--that reveals an

individual's preferences for interacting with the world.

The

instrument is widely used and has been in use for more than 40 years.

The MBTI

(Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)

was developed by

the daughter-mother team of Isabel Briggs Myers and Katherine Briggs.

Myers and Briggs based their work on the personality theory of Carl Gustav Jung.

Jung included three variables in his theory to

explain the way people perceive,

interpret,

and respond to their

environment.

The MBTI categorizes personality preferences with four variables. The variable added by Myers and Briggs identifies the preference for dealing with the outer world

(Myers,

Introduction to Type 6).

Each of the four variables is represented by one of two letters to indicate the preference. types.

Hence,

there are sixteen possible

In professional journals and the popular press,

the

sixteen types are characterized as having certain general personality traits.

Significantly,

described with a positive bent. talkative,

popular,

committee members" literature,

the traits are usually

For example:

conscientious,

"Warm-hearted,

born cooperators,

(Myers, Introduction to Type 7).

active Most of the

particularly the popular press, adds areas of

weakness for the various types.

Within the general population,

while all of the sixteen types are represented,

the distribution

is unequal.

Who's using the MBTI?

Lots of people.

business and government.

It is very popular in

The~MBTI is often used to help

individuals gain a greater understanding of themselves and to aid team building.

T h e sale of the copyrighted instrument and

related publications None-the-less,

is restricted to trained administrators.

there is reason for concern to insure the MBTI is

administered correctly and the results are used properly.

Some studies show the distributions of MBTI types are different for various cultural groups. results might vary.

There are two obvious reasons the

The wording of the instrument may be

interpreted differently by different cultural groups. Conversely,

the results may reveal actual true differences in the

subject populations.

If subjects

are to obtain benefit

they must have confidence result

for themselves.

people,

myself

relative

that the instrument

This is especially

included,

believe

that the results

of MBTI

This

of

is an

as a group rather than as

there is opportunity

that in our everyday

application

alone a

issue.

A n y time people are identified individuals

since many

inside their head."

subjects must have confidence

important

will give a true

important

the MBTI will be used only in an ethical way. extremely

of the MBTI,

resist the notion of anyone--let

stranger--"getting

In addition,

from the results

for discrimination.

Wemay

lives and, by e x t e n s i o n , in the

information,

we can be unbiased.

But a

simple example m a y cause us to question even ourselves.

Imagine your choice to take up residence new countries. engineers

In country Alpha:

are German,

The chefs are French,

and the police officers

country Beta:

The chefs are British,

and the police

officers

pick country Alpha. seemingly

innocuous

demonstrated. ethical

in one of two fictitious

are German.

Now,

admittedly,

are British.

the engineers Most people

In

are French,

I know would

this choice is based upon

ethnic stereotypes.

But the principal

We must be on guard to avoid falling

trap of judging people

the

is

into the

on anything but their own merit.

4

VALIDATIQN OF THE MBTI

" [The MBTI] has b e e n t r a n s l a t e d into 25 l a n g u a g e s a n d is u s e d in 30 countries." (Dearie)

The MBTI was originally written use it in other languages simple translation.

in standard American

and cultures

English.

To

takes much more than a

There are at least three ways to develop a

valid type indicating

instrument

in a new language.

1 - The first way is "from scratch".

This is the method that Isabel Briggs Myers used to develop original

instrument.

the

This effort spanned may years and resulted

in the refined American English version,

form G, of the MBTI that

is in widespread use today.

2 - A second way is to translate validate

Albert

it in the new language using a bilingual

F. Inclan describes

of the MBTI: MBTI,

He made an "informal

due to linguistic

Next,

selecting

of the original.

sample.

translation"

cultures,

the translation

the cultural

that

"did not of the

and social

the instrument was formally

Spanish text which preserved

the dichotomy

Using input from three bi-lingual 5

of the

He discovered

intended by the authors

taking into account

of Spanish-speaking

translated

linguistic

and cultural nuances

and

of the Spanish version

it to himself.

the feelings and emotions

instrument." values

the development

Form G, and administered

measure

a valid instrument

adults

from

different

Spanish-speaking

instrument

to eliminate

ambiguous. people,

cultures,

text that was culturally

again from different

cultures,

The instrument

results.

The finalized

bilingual

sample that had various

cultural

also completed comparing

for back-translation

Spanish

instrument residence

and socioeconomic

the Spanish and English in the U.S.

was administered

Each subject

The test-retest

results,

translation

is indeed a valid one which...would

Inclan concluded:

it using a monolingual

Casas describes

the MBTI.

and

of the French v e r s i o n

translation

and refined

of

it

Their main concern was to retain the

of the original,

"taking into account

the

theory of types rather than carrying out a literal

translation." psychological

M a n y word pairs were translated polarity and not necessarily

The translation bilingual

a valid instrument

the development

with two other translators.

underlying

give fairly

sample.

Casas made a preliminary

content validity

"... the

(Inclan 35-46)

3 - A third way is to translate

Eduardo

data,

equaled or exceeded

reported

validate

to a

times in the U.S. and

backgrounds.

the English version.

results."

into

was further refined based upon those

the results

accurate

laden or

Then the Spanish version was given to five bilingual

English.

various

Inclan refined the

logical

was refined using suggestions

psychology

students.

tested on three student groups;

to "express

from thirty

An experimental test-retest

opposition."

v e r s i o n was

reliability

was

consistent

with U.S.

given a preliminary instrument setting.

results.

Then,

validation

the French instrument

in four studies

results with the subjects'

was

that compared

observed type in a work

Full scale validation was undertaken with francophone

students

in Ontario,

the results

Quebec,

"are an acceptable

adequacy of this instrument research and professional French Version

3-15)

CROSS-CULTURAL

ISSUES

Is type universal? results?

and France. evidence

use."

of MBTI surveys?

that

of the psychometric

for the purpose

of continuing

(Casas, Development

of the

"...it is alear we are in the e a r l y stages of the global e v o l u t i o n of type theory. It is p r o p e r to say that w e are Just s t a r t i n g to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a d d r e s s vital crosscultural issues." (Twillman 34)

Are there cross-cultural

What about co-cultures

the cross-cultural

Casas concludes

variations

variations

within the U.S.?

What causes

that may be observed

Can cross-cultural

variations

in type

in the results

be extrapolated

to groups as a whole?

There are differing views. Deane,

says that to answer these questions

language MBTI.

Helen Pelikan,

translations

and reliable

issues.

7

requires

cross-cultural

"At this time we don't have enough."

a co,tu,ittee on cross-cultural

quoted by Barbara really good

data from the

Pelikan has chaired

"[R]esearch

is needed to v e r i f y if the concept of type is

understandable MBTI with Americans,

in non-western

'co-cultures' Hispanics,

cultures... [and] to validate the

in the United States

etc.)"

(e.g. with A f r i c a n

(Deane).

But Deane goes on to say "...type has been confirmed in every culture so far explored.

It is not known how type preferences

are expressed in each culture,

and how core concepts are

expressed in various languages and cultures." Eduardo Casas as saying there are differences countries

Deane also quotes in type across

that could be interpreted as psycho-cultural

factors.

All of these questions are of interest as we recognize the human need to u n d e r s t a n d each other and the practical need to accommodate a more diverse work force.

Is type universal?

It certainly seems reasonable to expect that type is universal. A l t h o u g h the MBTI Manual issues,

contains very little about cultural

it does explain that:

"Jung's theory is concerned with perception and judgement, which are information gathering and decision making, taking in the stimulus and making the response.

or

Because

most behavior is concerned with p e r c e p t i o n or with judgement,

type differences

can be expected to occur across

8

a v e r y broad range of life events. describing mental processes species.

Jung believed

common to the entire human

To the extent that he was correct,

differences McCaulley

should be consistent

across

type

cultures."

(Myers &

223)

In a lecture delivered at the Eighth International the Association

for Psychological

Casas addressed

the question

rational,

he was

the theoretical

- Type theories,

Type in June of 1989,

from three perspectives:

of

Eduardo "the

and the empirical."

along with mechanistic

with us throughout

Conference

history.

theories,

Conceptually,

have been

or rationally,

type is "solid and pervasive."

- Jung's

theory is universal

- Empirically cultures.

the MBTI

(Casas,

by its very nature.

"works"

Exploring

in different

languages

the Universality

and

of Type 241-

242)

Researchers

also conclude

their study

"lends support

universality

of type...all

al. 9) cultural

Another

concludes:

research,

that type is universal.

One group says

to Jung's theory with regard to the 16 types were found." It is possible

cross-cultural

9

results

(Williams,

et

to use type in crossshow similarities

as

well as differences needed.

(Casas,

More recently evidence and

Exploring

(fall 1992)

so far

"indicates

"many suspect

different

in the type tables,

the Universality

that psychological

on Type Development

cultural

groups"

In a study of mainland

al.

that the

type is universal",

of preferences

may be

(The Impact of Culture

18).

Are there cross-cultural variations

found significantly

is

of Type 244)

Nancy Barger has written

that the distribution

in different

and more research

Chinese

in type r e s u l t s ?

college

students,

researchers

more T and TJ than in the U.S.

(Williams,

et

9)

In the studies

to validate

MBTI m e n t i o n e d

aboqe,

data

(Inclan)

MBTI,

both observed differences

& (Casas,

In the development

Development

and validation

"...item analysis

differences

the Spanish and French versions

of the French Version).

the two cultures.

Jung's assumption but in different

proportions"

and type distribution

Tentative

that psychological

support

type appears

(Sim 2687-A).

I0

of the

that there may be

in the social desirability

ratios across

from the U.S.

of the Korean version

demonstrated

of the

exists

for

in all cultures

Interestingly, cultures.

similar types occupy similar jobs in various

"The type tables we have at this point indicate

types self-select do in the U.S. preferences cultures"

for occupations

that

in other cultures m u c h as they

As data come in, there is great similarity

of people in similar occupations (Barger,

International

in the

in widely different

News 21).

What about co-cultures w i t h i n the U.S.?

(The term "co-culture" describe

a cultural

predominant context,

appears

group that exists

distinct

is a numerical

in type preferences

data on racial and cultural variation

within the U.S.

Most studies

and business people.

country's

social development

inflame racial differences. to immerse

This is partly because in the sample

involved middle Also,

didn't want to know.

and placed

class

college

at that time in our

there were plenty of excuses Practitioners

the MBTI in the conflict.

to

m a y have seen no need

In other words--we

really

The MBTI answer sheet does not collect

racial or cultural data, is necessarily

in this

and has an

when the instrument was f i r s t v a l i d a t e d

into popular use. students

minority

may have been under-represented

populations

Typically,

culture.)

There is little historical

minorities

to

in parallel with the

culture of the society at large.

the co-culture

ethnically

in some of the literature

so data on co-culture

the product

of special II

research.

type distributions The lack of

knowledge

can be frustrating

for those who seek to apply type

theory and the MBTI to real world situations

"[O]ver the past ten years...there as it relates demographic

to blacks."

"[The]

has been little published

limited

data is based on CAPT's

of Psychological

Type]

neutral.

As a result,

to blacks

and whites,

assumption

today.

concentration

co-cultures.

that the MBTI is culture

one is led to believe it is race neutral"

results

of samples

representation

An early

(1972)

of Black college

of E, S, T, and J.

to the source of these differences economic,

and societal

statistically research.

that as MBTI relates

(Battle 161).

support

important

considering

speculated

there were

but recommended

"the results

stable

of Japanese

found that the Japanese

54-55).

12

as

cultural,

They concluded

further

of this study give

instrument

Type

capable of

(Levy & Murphy

and Caucasian

652).

ancestry,

sample had significantly

I, J, SJ, and IJ types than the Caucasian Ostrowski

showed a high

The researchers

group differences"

In a study of Hawaiians researchers

students

for the use of the Myers-Briggs

as a psychometrically

reflecting

of types in

study found that the type

differences

They also concluded

considerable Indicator

influences.

significant

on

[Center for the Application

On the other hand there has been some exploration U.S.

data

sample

(Levy &

more

It seems

that no m a t t e r what the race or culture,

drawn to like occupations. [U.S.] m a n a g e r s

One study c o n c l u d e d

of different

like types are

that

races were m o r e s i m i l a r

other than they were to the general p o p u l a t i o n

"...even to each

norms"

(Malone

23).

In our society, instruments) concerns

c o n c e r n about

r e l a t e d to the MBTI? development

are always p r e s e n t Responses

examples

in tests

is f r e q u e n t l y a topic in the media.

organizational

MBTI.

cultural biases

firm,

especially

can be

A l a n Weiss, points

How are these

president

of an

out that cultural

in f o r c e d - c h o i c e

biases

tests like the

"highly c u l t u r a l l y dependent".

He cites

of an i,~,~,igrant who a n s w e r e d the items d i f f e r e n t l y

depending

on w h i c h culture was s e l e c t e d as the basis

answers.

Similarly,

home basis.

different

for the

d i f f e r e n e e s m a y be found on a w o r k v e r s u s

Even the way the q u e s t i o n

implications.

is a s k e d m a y have cultural

G i v e n a forced choice scenario,

cultures m a y have v e r y d i f f e r e n t

What w o u l d you t h i n k / s a y / d o / p r e f e r ?

S i m p l y put,

we n e e d further i n v e s t i g a t i o n

full use of the MBTI

people

responses

questions:

to make

(or

from to the

(Weiss 3).

of c o - c u l t u r e s

in order

in the U.S.

W h a t c a u s e s the c r o s s - c u l t u r a l v a r i a t i o n s

that m a y b e o b s e r v e d in

the r e s u l t s of M B T I surveys?

There are a v a r i e t y of p o s s i b l e

sources

13

for the variations:

1 - the variations

represent the true difference

in

preferences between cultural groups.

This is the ideal case reflecting the true environment and population.

This is the goal of MBTI practitioners--but

"real world"

is, of course,

2

the

more complicated.

the v a r i a t i o n may be caused by a measurement

subject's adaptive psychological

of the

type rather than the "true"

type.

There can be a distinction between a person's true type and his/her adaptive type.

Basically the concept is this:

A true

type is the one a person is born with and the adaptive type is the one

(possibly different)

a person uses out of necessity to

adapt and survive in an environment type.

A p e r s o n may have a different

type.

People in traditional

that may favor a different "work" type than "home"

or regulated societies may adopt a

public type that conforms to the societal expectations. the individual-rights p r e f e r r e d type:

ESTJ.

find it advantageous In Japan,

conscious U.S.,

Even in

there is a culturally

In some public situations non-ESTJs m a y

to chameleon themselves

to appear as ESTJs.

societal norms emphasize the value of I's versus E's.

the v a r i a t i o n may be the result of faulty statistics.

14

The statistical results

basis of the MBTI is rigorous

include millions

experimentation question methods

proceeds

of statistical described above,

preliminary

validity

remains

a researcher

important.

can establish

working groups,

etc.--there

is always

to be skewed because

representative application accumulation

in "samples"

the

that

businesses,

the opportunity

the sample population

checking

the

Since

as schools,

of the entire population.

of statistical

Using the

is placed into use,

of the MBTI often take place homogeneous--such

the

and/or transculturalized

As the "new" instrument

may be artificially

The

as

applications

of results will obviously be very small.

administrations

results

However,

in cross-cultural

validity of the translated

MBTI instrument. database

of respondents.

and thorough.

for the

is not

The rigorous

techniques

coupled with the

of a larger data base will validate

the instrument

over time.

Can

cross-oultural

variations

be extrapolated

to g r o u p s

as a

whole?

It is tempting

to imagine that nationalities

type of their own--a sort of conglomerate seems reasonable. sort of thinking

type.

(But, as we shall discuss

It certainly

further on,

this

is at the edge of the ethical quicksand.)

"[If we can show the universality understand

or cultures have a

the differences

of type,]...then

we can

between cultures more in terms of the 15

differences in the distribution of the types in different cultures"

(Levy & Ostrowski 54).

Referring to the observed type differences between French, American

(U.S.),

francophone Canadian,

and anglophone Canadian

individuals--both males and females--one observer remarked:

"The

most commonly held stereotypes about the national character of these cultures seem to be reinforced by these findings."

(Casas,

Exploring the Universality of Type 244)

There is clearly much work to be done in the cross-cultural arena.

MBTI professionals have been meeting for several years to

address these issues.

Research,

conferences,

and training

programs will strengthen the MBTI for use in meeting the challenges and opportunities of a diverse work force as we enter the next century. Briggs Myers,

Katherine D. Myers,

daughter-in-law of Isabel

reports that Consulting Psychologists Press,

Inc.

"is implementing a structure to insure the same professional standards of instrumentation, been maintained domestically"

THEORETICAL BASIS

validation and marketing as have (Katherine Myers 2).

"The aim of the MBTI is to identify, from self-report of easily recognized reactions, the basic preferences of people in regard to perception and Judgement, so that the effects of each preference, singly and in combination, can be established by research and put into practical use. (Myers & McCaulley i) 16

In order to explore the ethical application of the MBTI results it is important to have a better understanding of the strength of the theoretical basis for the indicator.

The MBTI manual very

convincingly documents the development and use of the MBTI, but there are challenges to the instrument.

We should understand the

challenges as part of understanding the MBTI.

Myers theory is based upon her own observations and upon Jung's theory.

The essence of Jung's theory is succinctly described as

follows:

"Jung believed that variations chance, whim,

in behavior are not due to

or personality flaw, but rather to a

predictable pattern based on differences in the way people perceive information and make decisions.

In Jung's

judgement-free system, there is no 'good' or 'bad,' no 'right' or 'wrong', only differences to be identified, valued,

and even appreciated."

(Webb 34)

HOW does the professional community view Jung?

One author says:

Freudians view Jung as "loosey-goosey," psychiatrists rarely read Jung, and psychologists give him only passing mention. theory,

says British Analyst Andrew Samuels,

psychology,

"Jung's

is a 'mongrel'

mixing myths and symbols of disparate cultures,

linking all humanity through the collective unconscious." 64)

17

yet (Goode

This may not sound like much of a foundation personality-type story.

instrument

in the U.S.,

There are some differences

for the most popular

but there is more to the

between Myers'

and Jung's

theories.

Ana-Maria

Garden,

A British

with the distinction; several Myers,

concerned

from Jung in

out that these departures

separate

from Jung:

- The use of the J-P congruent

is particularly

noting that Myers departs

areas and points and the MBTI,

consultant,

(Judgement-Perception)

with Jung's

original work,

dichotomy

is not

either in form or

theory.

Jung says type is based upon habitual use of a function; while Myers

says type is based upon a dichotomous

preference.

-

"One of Jung's basic premises

be considered

as a type."

Garden goes on to express and v a l i d a t i o n instrument [Myers]

theory

"It is precisely

where they have,

of Myers'

assumptions

(as opposed to the MBTI the structure

type theory that needs addressing,...a

building blocks

should

(Garden 7)

concern with the underlying

of the Myers

itself).

was that not everyone

of the

number of basic

theory have barely been examined,

and

the evidence has not always been supportive" 18

(Garden

4).

Some of her concerns are fundamental

to Myers'

type

theory:

-

The assumption

preference,

that the MBTI scale measures

not degree of development

"[T]he hypothesis

of dichotomous

degree of

of the preference.

types is precisely

that--an hypothesis."

"Even accepting

the assumption

MBTI may not have operationalised correct place."

With these assaults

people per year

on the theoretical

foundation,

It is certainly

instrument--taken

the

at the

Another author describes

"practical

applications

the most

is not a measure

a four-point

of

foundation

for

of type theory":

- "The core theory itself: development

how can we put

by more than two million

(Lee 28); but popularity

validity.

Myers'

the midpoint

types,

(Garden 4-9)

any faith in the MBTI instrument? popular personality

of dichotomous

Jung's writings

on type and

of these ideas in both her writing and

the MBTI."

- "A means of empirical verification: MBTI...is

the

'reality-check'

continually be tested."

against which the theory must

"Myers...spent 19

Research with the

some forty years

developing a scientifically valid and reliable instrument for empirically testing

[type theory]."

- "Intuitive inspiration:

Intuitive insights..tested

against established theory and research... [insure a]...dynamic balance is maintained between the enduring foundations of the theory and its continuing development."

- "Ethical practice:

The ethical use of knowledge about our

human nature constitutes one of the strongest foundation stones of Jung's and Myers'

work."

(Newman 27-28)

"Why don't some psychologists accept the MBTI as a useful tool?...Jung himself would not take the MBTI. psychologist,

As a clinical

he believed strongly in interview and observation

methodologies.

So it is with many clinical psychologists

today

who are not just a little skeptical about such personality indicators.

Also, we have to realize that for a number of years

Jung was not held in high favor in the psychological

community.

Freudians and others of non-Jungian persuasion are slow to sing the praises of a practical

tool based on an 'alien'

theory...[Since most MBTI practitioners work and publish in fields other than psychology,]

it is only recently that articles

on the MBTI have begun to appear in reputable journals of psychology"

(Jefferies 46).

20

The most useful and compelling MBTI is repeatability--or

factor permitting

test-retest

statistics

show test-retest

of between

70% and 95%--depending

individual's

the use of the

reliability.

consistency

The

for the four letter type

upon the strength of an

preference.

....the human condition is what psychology is all about and, therefore, the application of psychological theory has ethical consequences." (Newman 28)

ETHICS

In this section we will explore a number of questions

concerning

the MBTI and ethics:

Typewatching

or typecasting?

view psychological statistical

basis

"tests"

results?

outcomes?

What about faking?

"subjects"

How strong decisions?

Can the lack of knowledge

in unethical

make sense?

like the MBTI?

for employment-related

results be misused? indirectly

How do people who are

is the How can MBTI

of type result

Does pre-employment How can we ethically

What about the pragmatic

aspects

testing apply MBTI

of using type

in the

workplace?

Typewatching or typecasting?

The MBTI is a powerful about themselves.

tool that can truly help people

Better self-understanding

in their daily lives, both personal 21

learn more

can help individuals

and public.

But a person's

type is a label as well as a tool. of ways

to label people.

Many of those labels can be, and are,

used to discriminate--either It is important

intentionally

or unintentionally.

that the MBTI types are not used as a new set of

16 d i s c r i m i n a t o r y provides

In our society we have plenty

labels.

The literature

echoes

this caution and

examples:

"[T]here

is a danger of type terms being used to

stereotype.

A recent advertisement

psychologist

which stated

'ESTJs and people who do not know

what that means need not apply' because

for an organizational

was a misuse

the first part of the criterion

unfairly against

"[C]ritics pigeonholing

ESTJs"

of type theory,

discriminates

(Bayne 50).

say the instrument

becomes

a way of

people and even giving them type-based

for sub-standard

performance.

excuses

('You know how we N's are; we

never like to spell a word the same way twice.')"

(Zemke

44).

-

"The charges

is a static,

that Myers-Briggs

undynamic

like astrology,

stereotypes

theory that traffics

people,

in labels much

have dogged the theory for years"

78).

22

that it

(Moore

74-

How do people who are "subjects"

vlewpsychological

"tests"

like

the MBTI?

W h e n the MBTI

is i n t r o d u c e d

of concern and friction. concerns

of "subjects"

few quotes

in the w o r k p l a c e

it can be a source

A n u m b e r of authors

of p e r s o n a l i t y

have a d d r e s s e d

instruments.

the

Here are a

that seem to sum up m a n y concerns:

- "Some scoff at all this J u n g i a n astrology,

'type talk,'

and m a n y resist

cast.'... [There is] a n x i e t y u s e d by the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n transfer"

perhaps,

the idea of b e i n g

'type-

that type i n f o r m a t i o n m i g h t be to select

thinks

the m e a s u r e therefore,

competence

staff for p r o m o t i o n

or a b i l i t y

or

is b e i n g

is l i k e l y to be more t h r e a t e n i n g

less useful"

- "William W h y t e a r t i c u l a t e d

the concerns

to g r i m l y h o m o g e n i z e d

81).

23

and

(Bayne 49).

of m a n y w h e n he

cited these tests as a threat to i n d i v i d u a l i t y precursor

it as

(Webb 36).

"If a r e s p o n d e n t measured,

dismissing

corporate

and the

cultures"

(Lasden

How strong is the statistical basis for e m p l o y m e n t - r e l a t e d decisions?

This is a worrisome topic because the MBTI may be used to exclude,

or give advantage,

opinions vary.

based upon type.

Professional

Tim Beardsley points out in an article in

Scientific American

"...most of the supposed correlations between

scores and job performance were likely to be the result of pure chance"

(156).

He quotes Rodney L. Lowman, a psychologist at

Duke University Medical Center and author of a book about testing:

"There is far more practice than there is research

literature to support the proactive use of these tests...mistakes are being made by screening services that may be overly aggressive in weeding people out...specific job relevancy has yet to be demonstrated"

(Beardsley 154).

Beardsley generally

concludes that even rigorously applied tests will not yield a worthwhile improvement over pure chance.

Other authors support this view stating:

"The published research

on the validity of personality tests for personnel decision making is much thinner than many personnel professionals may imagine.

Thinner in two senses:

there is not much of it, and

what there is gives scant grounds for confidence in the method" (Fletcher, Blinkhorn,

Johnson 38).

Researchers using computer

simulation techniques have tested the validity of published test results.

"Our conclusion was that there were no grounds for

supposing that personality tests predict performance at work to 24

any useful extent, of work

except in a minority of rather extreme kinds

(for instance,

(Fletcher, Blinkhorn,

those involving severe social isolation)" and Johnson 38).

Pointing out that even

the best correlations are in the range of 0.01 to 0.13, they add: "Only if you can afford to reject nine out of i0 applicants will such relationships yield much benefit."

Other commenters on this

subject express careful opinions that refute some of these points but add cautions that the tests should be interpreted by experienced professionals and that they should be carefully applied as an aid to interviewing, team building.

subject self-awareness,

(Fletcher, Blinkhorn,

or

and Johnson 40-42)

It is evident that there is nQD a sufficient statistical basis for the use of personality tests,

including the MBTI,

to make

employment decisions.

H o w can M B T I

results be misused?

The MBTI is useful in a number of legitimate areas such as selfawareness,

counselling,

curriculum design, and team building to

improve organizational performance. go m u c h farther.

Unfortunately,

some authors

They actually propose segregating selected

types for special treatment--albeit organization.

25

for the benefit of the

In an article describing organizational "Research

flexibility

indicates

on instruments

a way to meet business and less structure,

that executives

are searching effective

for".

program designed have,

He goes on to say:

talent

Type Indicator

(MBTI)

"One of the most

can take to help increase

is to systematically

implement

an overall

to locate the existing

intuitive

talent they

identify the type of intuitive

follow management

intuitive

problem solving talent organizations

steps that organizations

their productivity

with

one author states:

who test out highly

such as the Myers-Briggs

have the kind of innovative

challenges

practices

for effective

designed

decision making"

the following benefits

talent they have,

and then

to use and develop (Agor 68).

this

He identifies

and ideas:

- "...the organization assign to activities

will have a better

idea of w h o m to

such as brainstorming

- "...the organization

should establish

sessions."

a network of talent

for future use."

"...testing will organization reducing

indicate

values

turnover

to intuitive

executives

their skills and talents,

rates."

seemingly benign.

clearly a line is crossed with the recommendation a formal

thereby

(Agor 69)

This is all very logical and perhaps

"establishing

that the

'intuition 26

club'...to

But

of

reestablish

a more

integrated balance techniques"

to your more traditional

(Agor 70).

careful application,

The identification, iNtuitives--or inappropriate

It is clear that,

segregation,

and special

any other type--is

Therefore,

or predominantly,

unsound and

The MBTI identifies

knowledge,

Most importantly,

whether the subject has developed

solely,

for

It does not indicate anything

about the person or their capabilities, for success.

treatment

fundamentally

for other reasons as well.

own preferences!

even with the most

this use of type is un-ethical.

only a person's preferences.

potential

management

else

experience,

or

it does not even tell

the practical

use of his/her

to base any corporate program

on type is illogical

as well as

unethical.

Another observer writes: Myers-Briggs panacea,

"In one banking client,

Type Indicator

(MBTI) being used as an all purpose

with managers making decisions

based entirely on the

individuals'

MBTI scores and nothing else["

Typewatching

professionals

too.

I found the

(Weiss 3)

can be caught up in type-based bias,

One author notes a subtle and systematic bias can creep

into discussions, One example

literature,

cited is the feeling amongst

to be predominantly (i.e. better) noting:

and materials

N's themselves)

than S's.

type experts

(who tend

that N's are more creative

He also explains

The secret belief,

of the "experts."

this behavior by

that one's own type is the best, 27

is a

"stage"

that one must transcend

difference

in others

in order to appreciate

(Hammer 14-16).

Even Otto Kroeger admits,

in his book Type Talk @t Work,

trying to round out his predominantly an ESTJ.

(It didn't work out;

NFP organization

mistake"

on the basis

to

by hiring

the employee was let go.)

we didn't practice what we now preach: principally

type

of type.

"Indeed

We tried to hire

We've since learned

from our

(Kroeger 123).

There are ways to misuse Imagine a group of people If that group

the MBTI indirectly that happens

for discriminating.

to have a telltale

is also the target of discrimination,

easy to misuse

the MBTI by excluding

target group--from

hiring or ~ t h e r

the type--and

type.

it would be thus the

opportunities.

A simple example would be to only include people who have a T preference.

In the U.S.,

and only one-third mathematically

female

about two-thirds

of the T's are male

(Kroeger and Thuesen 31).

this would double

Thus,

the chance of hiring a male and

halve the chances

for a female even if in all other respects

selection process

could be made truly blind to the sex of the

applicants. appear

Similar opportunities

if cultural

for discrimination

groups display telltale

28

types.

could

the

Can the lack of knowledge of type result indirectly in unethical outcomes?

Just as over-reliance unethical,

on the MBTI in the hiring process

lack of knowledge

of type may be harmful

is

as well.

People tend to get along well and associate with others who are like themselves. or promotion

This can carry over to the workplace

decisions.

It is easy to imagine that managers

might tend to hire people who are like themselves. a company--or reinforced

an organization--could

Eventually

As a result,

take on a "type"

naturally but unintentionally

hiring decisions.

and hiring

of its own,

through a history of

the company president may be

replaced by someone who has come up within the company, of the original.

So, an awareness

a "clone"

of type may help guard against

cloning.

Does pre-employment

testingmake

Related to the ethics employment

decisions.

Certainly

pointing

personality predictors

sense.

on good hiring

tests that directly measure job related would be a useful hiring tool.

tests the right tool?

out that:

of whether pre-

testing makes good business

competition means more emphasis

skills and abilities personality

issue is the consideration

personality

Tighter business

sense?

Some authors

But are

think not,

"Although employers are increasingly

tests in hiring decisions, of an applicant's

tests are generally poor

job performance" 29

using

because:

- "Personality

is extremely

Other factors

affect productivity

training and experience, and individual

difficult

functional

to measure."

more than personality: layout of the workplace,

employee motivation.

- "There's

rarely only one way to do a job."

- Finally,

there can be legal problems

are unfairly

"For personality

excluded.

(Taylor & Zimmerer

tests to help...the

I) Personality must be directly

2) certain

jobs must require

3) personality

is correct.

them."

Since the personality

related to job performance;

traits.

and

None of these three

Adding these devices

is more likely to increase (Taylor & Zimmerer

to the costs than to

64)

testing program itself has costs as well,

all of this adds up to demonstrate personality

following must be true:

tests used for hiring decisions must

selection process decrease

60-62)

certain personalities;

accurately measure personality statements

if some applicants

that the exclusive use of

tests for hiring decisions

worth. 30

costs more than it's

-

What

about

faking?

While we're thinking about ethics, of the coin.

let's look at the other side

What about the subjects?

It m a y be in their best

interest to "beat the system" on the MBTI instrument. they may have to assume what

"the system"

Of course,

is in order to make the

attempt.

One study evaluated the fakeability of the MBTI.

The three sets

of subjects were asked to answer the instrument and to: good, be honest,

or fake bad

possible light).

(i.e. present yourself

fake

in best/worst

The author noted that the responses

indicated

that: The fake good profile is ESTJ; bad ISTP. E is seen as good;

I bad; J good;

P bad.

High scores on S and T are seen as both good and bad. Low scores on J and F are seen as both good and bad. The honest

(control)

group was ENFP.

(Furnham 716)

The author concludes that "...faking is not easy and there is not clear agreement as to what constitutes a good or bad response" (Furnham 716).

"The results of this study showed three of the

most w i d e l y used personality questionnaires psychology

[including the MBTI]

deliberate

faking"

in occupational

appear highly susceptible

(Furnham 714).

31

to

Now let's

consider

the ethics

are two interesting

points

"Thus it is possible

of the subjects

themselves.

of view:

that if people

fake on application

questionnaires

they are likely to be unreliable

either because

they are mentally unstable

ingratiation

Here

and dissimulation

to achieve

employees

or else prone to some end.

other hand it should be pointed out that subjects

On the

who are

able to fake good in psychiatric

settings

better adjusted.

that some m i l d forms of

'faking good'

It is possible

are highly appropriate

that the total absence psychological

of efforts

correlates.

further empirical

"'If tests are being legitimately career-planning answer

process,

the tester's

Dudley says. insights

for job applicants

however,

awaits

(Furnham 715)

applied to assist

then it's in your interest

questions

in

at distortion may have

This question,

investigation."

are typically

in the to

as honestly as you can,'

'But if tests are being used to InfliQt

upon you,

then it's in your best interest

the tester exactly what it is he wants

to hear.'"

to tell (Lasden

86)

The reader may decide

to choose either of the above points

view; but we should remember choices,

of

that the subjects are making their

too.

32

H o w can w e e t h i c a l l y a p p I y M B T I results?

There are several keys to ethically applying MBTI results. first i s confirmation.

The

The statistics on a psychological

instrument can have a wide range and still be considered "acceptable"

(because they can be proven statistically to be

better than random).

Therefore,

in using the MBTI,

the

confirmation of "tested" type by the subject is critical. subject,

The

in every instance, must be able to accept or reject the

type that the MBTI instrument provides.

This simple step is the

single most important safeguard of the subject's interest.

Second,

continue the controls over the administration of the

instrument.

CPP

(Consulting Psychological

Press)

administrators of the MBTI to be certified.

requires

These trained

personnel can exert their influence to help see that the MBTI is used for the purpose Isabel Briggs Myers intended--to make better use of our "gifts differing"

(Myers).

Third, use the MBTI in applications where it has shown its statistical strength--repeatability. awareness;

Fourth,

It's a great tool for self-

stay away from using it for employment decisions.

follow this advice:

"MBTI practitioners must have a

foundation in some professional practice...then, is the MBTI a valuable and appropriate tool. broader foundation,

and only then,

Without this

the MBTI will be used indiscriminately: 33

'if

all you've

got is a h ~ t e r ,

are times when using

the MBTI

can even be destructive"

Lastly,

and most

"guinea pigs" practice

everything

(Provost

importantly,

the lives

like a nail.'

is not the best

There

intervention

and

7).

we should always

are human beings.

affects

looks

The damage

remember

the

from u n - e t h i c a l

of real people.

What about the pragmatic aspects of using type in the workplace?

Listen

to the experts:

- "The A P T Ethical

(Association

Principles

for Psychological

makes

or d i s a d v a n t a g e

of

type

anyone"

63).

- "Typewatching the s i x t e e n job"

Statement

it clear that p s y c h o l o g i c a l

ought not be u s e d to advantage (Jefferies

Type)

literature

continues

types has the potential

(Kroeger

to a f f i r m

that a n y of

to be successful

at any

119).

- "A p s y c h o l o g i c a l

instrument

Indicator

was never

criterion

of employment.

type as the basis

intended

promote--someone

Type

to be used as the only

Ethically

of a hiring

i n a p p r o p r i a t e .... Finally,

such as the M y e r s - B r i g g s

and even legally,

or firing d e c i s i o n

using

w o u l d be

using type to fire--or not hire or

could be seen as a form of discrimination. 34

There is a growing body of laws that speaks loudly and clearly to that issue"

(Kroeger 118-119).

- "Any organization that selects leaders even partially on the basis of personality traits is risking serious EEO difficulties.

Not only is there the danger of being accused

of illegal discrimination,

but there is also the real

possibility of being found guilty"

(Taylor & Zi~6~6,erer 63).

- "The bottom line in personnel is this: hiring a type for a job.

You are never

You're hiring a person"

(Kroeger

119).

"No p a p e r a n d p e n indicator, no matter how well conceived and normed, can s u m u p h u m a n personality." (Jefferles 23)

CONCLU$IQN

The most important e~mpiric~ll

"lesson learned" about the MBTI is that it is

It is valid,

repeatable,

useful,

interesting;

it works; but we really don't know exactly why. theory fully developed and justified. judiciously.

35

Therefore,

we know

Nor is the it must be used

In general,

I would recommend

when using the MBTI,

narrow ethical

a

road:

- Use the MBTI only where the subject involved and personally

- It is important human beings.

verifies

is voluntarily

his/her

type.

to remember that the "guinea pigs"

Depending

on the circumstances,

may easily feel threatened by the instances,

following

"test".

they may bring psychological

arena that could be exacerbated

are

the subjects

In some

problems

by the process

to the

of being

"typed."

- An individual--or or "out" using type. hiring or promotion

group--should

results

"in"

And type should never be used for decisions.

We have seen there are cross-cultural and that more research

never be segregated

is required

differences

in this area.

in MBTI results Hopefully

the

of that research will enable the further use of type to

improve human understanding.

"There are no good or bad types in typewatching; there are only differences." (Kroeger 7}

36

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40

Tr@ining April

NATIONAL DEFENSE UNIVERSITY

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