Mechanism Selection by an Informed Seller: Product and Taste Heterogeneity Fr´ed´eric Koessler

Vasiliki Skreta

Paris School of Economics – CNRS

University College London

June 23, 2014

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Motivation Myerson (1981) and Riley and Zeckhauser (1983): posted prices seller profit-maximising procedure (one object, one buyer whose willingness to pay private information) in practice: sellers initiate process by inviting non-binding offers and by engaging in information exchanges with buyer(s) before finalising price “indications of interests” or “indicative bids”: cheap talk claims about buyer’s willingness to pay process known as “bookbuilding” Boone and Mulherin (2007) indicative bids prevalent both in presence of multiple buyers (auctions–50% of company sales in their sample) and in negotiations with one buyer (roughly, other half company sales in that sample) Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Indicative bids: a theoretical puzzle? theoretically: proven difficult to justify the prevalence of such cheap talk communications existing works focus on the role of indicative bids as a bidder-selection tool I

Milgrom (2004), Ye (2007) and Quint and Hendricks (2013) study indicative bids as a way to pre-qualify bidders when bidding is costly F

I

show indicative bids reveal imperfect information; process does not select the strongest bidders

Boone and Goeree (2009) bidder-selecting through indicative bids reduces winner’s curse

do not justify the use of indication of interests as a step to initiate negotiations with a single buyer Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Role Indicative bids (cheap talk) with one buyer with one buyer no issue of bidder selection why do the parties engage in bilateral cheap talk communication? think of OREO’s cookies..... I

fascinating story of LBO of RJR Nabisco in late 80’s: catalytic effect of non-binding initial offers and information revelations

I

process ultimately lead to a much higher price (about 30%) compared to the initial offer

key issue in company sales: seller has private information about asset for sale that is relevant to the buyer and buyer’s willingness to pay depends also on idiosyncratic factors that are private information Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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This paper seller has private information about product characteristics; affects buyers’ willingness to pay I

idiosyncratic features, details about current state, quality

buyers heterogeneous and tastes private information I

willingness to pay is described by a “match function” that depends on seller’s and buyer’s type

show bilateral cheap talk communication, price offers conditional on the communication, strictly increases the seller’s revenue compared to simple posted prices process sometimes optimal or gets much closer to implementing the optimum compared to simple posted prices Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Motivating Example: How to sell house wine buyer can be one of three types: I

tl likes only Lirac

I

tr likes only Riesling

I

tc less particular–likes both

tavern selling house wine: kind of wine private information (buyer unable to tell by looking at the carafe/bottle...) I

sL house wine is Lirac

I

sR house wine is Riesling

seller wants to maximise payment buyer wants to maximise willingness to pay minus payment

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Motivating Example: Match Function Example v (s, t) =

sLirac sRiesling

tl tr tc 30 0 20 0 32 20

(uniform priors)

Optimal pooling posted price: 15 euros ρ = sL sR

tl tr tc 1, 15 1, 15 1, 15 ⇒ interim revenue X (s) = 15 1, 15 1, 15 1, 15

Optimal posted price with full info revelation: 20 euros (= in example optimal with commonly known seller’s type) ρ = sL sR

tl tr tc 2 1, 20 0, 0 1, 20 ⇒ X (s) = 20 × ' 13.3 < 15 worse 3 0, 0 1, 20 1, 20

Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Partial and Conditional communication on both sides Look at the following bilateral communication game with contingent payments: seller asks the buyer: are you tc ? if buyer says yes, seller asks a price of 20, buyer accepts if buyer says no, seller tells him whether he is sL or sR and asks a price of 30, tl accepts if seller said sL , tr accepts if seller said sR . Protocol implements a feasible mechanism strictly better than simple price: ρ = sL sR

tl tr tc 1, 30 0, 0 1, 20 ⇒ X (sL ) = X (sR ) = 50/3 ' 16.7 ∈ (15, 17) 0, 0 1, 30 1, 20

mechanism would extract all the surplus (and be optimal) if match function was v (sR , tr ) = v (sL , tl ) = 30. Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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A better mechanism is:

ρ = sL sR

tl tr tc 1, 30 0, 0 1, 20 0, 0 1, 32 1, 20

IC and PC for the buyer OK Not IC for the seller: X (sL ) = 50/3 6= X (sR ) = 52/3 But better for the seller (ex-ante and interim) Modified feasible and equally profitable mechanism:

ρ˜ = sL sR

tl tr tc 1, 15 0, 16 1, 20 ⇒ X˜ (sL ) = X˜ (sR ) = 51/3 = 17 > 15 0, 15 1, 16 1, 20

The optimal mechanisms we derive are based on this idea Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Remarks on the Example posted price is not optimal I

in contrast to Riley and Zeckhauser (1983), Myerson (1981) (seller has no private information) and Yilankaya (1999) (seller has private information–but buyer’s willingness to pay does not depend on it)

the seller strictly benefits from having private information I

in contrast to Maskin and Tirole (1990) and Yilankaya (1999)

optimal mechanism extracts all surplus (we have several examples with this feature) all insights generalize when buyer’s type continuum in an asymmetric model with vertical and horizontal differentiation (paper)

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Model 1 seller, type (product characteristic) s ∈ S 1 buyer, type (taste) t ∈ T type spaces T and S are compact metric spaces match function (buyer’s valuation): v (s, t) ∈ R; absolutely continuous in t for every s State-independent outside option and value for the seller ⇒ normalized to 0 information is soft selling procedure–the mechanism–is chosen by the seller formally, an informed principal problem with interdependent values Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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What does our model capture? seller-buyer relationships I

sale of niche goods or services

I

sale of experience goods (restaurant meals, vacation packages)

I

sale of credence goods (accounting services, legal or health advise)

I

agency privatizing state-owned assets

I

company sales

I

bank selling financial assets

worker-firm relationships–match function describes how much a firm values the worker expert-client relationships–match function describes how much a client values the advice/services Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Questions solution methodology I

when is ex-ante optimal mechanism an equilibrium of the mechanism-selection game?

characterization, implementation I

what are the characteristics of revenue-maxiziming procedures?

I

are simple mechanisms, such as posted prices optimal?

I

when can we implement the optimum with posted prices and unmediated communication between the seller and the buyer?

I

is it possible for the seller to leverage his private information and to extract the entire surplus of the buyer?

value of information I

does the seller benefit or regret from having private information about product characteristics? (and if yes, when)

I

can the seller benefit from having access to a certifying technology?

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Mechanism Choice by Informed Seller: Foundations Inscrutability Principle: all seller types propose same mechanism ρ Revelation Principle: direct mechanisms (along equil path) mechanism: ρ = (p, x) : S × T → [0, 1] × R I I

p(s, t): probability of sale x(s, t): expected transfer (price)

seller’s payoff: x(s, t) seller’s interim payoff: X (s) = ET [x(s, t) | s] buyer’s payoff: u(s, t) = p(s, t)v (s, t) − x(s, t) buyer’s interim payoff: U(t) = ES [u(s, t) | t] Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Feasible Mechanisms B-IC for the buyer:   U(t) ≥ ES p(s, t 0 )v (s, t) − x(s, t 0 ) | {z } U(t 0 |t)

B-PC for the buyer: U(t) ≥ 0 S-IC, S-PC for the seller is equivalent to X (s) = X (s 0 ) = X¯ ≡ ET [X (s)] ≥ 0

Proposition At every feasible mechanism the seller’s revenue is constant across types and equal to his ex-ante revenue. Hence, maximizing revenue ex-ante is the same as maximizing interim. Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Mechanism Choice by Informed Seller: Solution Concepts Core mechanism. ρ is a core mechanism if it is feasible, and if ν is preferred by some s ∈ S, ν not feasible for at least some some S¯ such that S ∗ ⊆ S¯ where S ∗ contains all s that strictly prefer ν to ρ. We show that ex-anter optimal mechanisms = Core mechanisms Expectational Equilibrium. ρ = (p, x) is an expectational equilibrium iff it is feasible, and for every generalised mechanism ρ˜, there exists a belief µ for the buyer; reporting and participation strategy profile that form a Nash Equilibrium of ρ˜ given µ, with outcome (p, ˜ x˜) such that for all s ∈ S: ET (x(s, t)) ≥ ET (˜ x (s, t)).

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Informed Seller: NOT a Problem Ex-ante optimal mechanisms are equilibria

Proposition In our environment, an ex-ante optimal mechanism is an expectational equilibrium.

Proof. let (p, x) be an ex-ante rev-max mechanism seller proposing (p, x) is part of an expectational equilibrium deviation to alternative mechanism (not necessarily direct) (p, ˜ x˜) let X˜ exp rev of the seller at an equil (same for all s) passive beliefs if at the Nash Equilibrium of (p, ˜ x˜), X˜ > X ; contradicts the ex-ante optimality of (p, x). Proposition turns informed principal problem to a constrained problem Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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What other mechanisms are expectational equilibria? Proposition Every feasible mechanism in which the interim revenue of the seller is higher than the best-separable (best safe) interim revenue of the seller is an expectational equilibrium. Consider wine example. The following mechanisms are expectational equilibria best separable mechanism payoff (IC for seller): 40/3 ≥ 40/3 posted price mechanism, no info transmission: 15 ≥ 40/3 bilateral cheap talk and contingent prices: 50/3 ≥ 40/3 I

however, none of these mechanisms is a core mechanism

ex-ante optimal yields 51/3 ≥ 40/3 and is in the core Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Informed Seller’s Problem

max X¯ = X (s) = X (s 0 ) subject to B-IC, B-PC, S-IC, S-PC and resource constraints are interim revenue-maximising feasible mechanism(s) for all types of the seller ex-ante revenue-maximising feasible mechanism(s) part of an expectational equilibrium

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Does Private Information hurt or benefit the Seller? Seller-IC does NOT restrict implementable payoffs

Lemma Take a direct mechanism (p, x) that gives the buyer interim payoff U(t 0 | t), t, t 0 ∈ T . There exists a mechanism (p, ˜ x˜) that satisfies the seller’s incentive constraint, generates the same ex-ante revenue for the seller, and gives the buyer the same interim payoff, that is ˜ 0 | t) = U(t 0 | t), for all t, t 0 ∈ T . U(t

Proof. Fix a mechanism ρ = (p, x), and let x˜(s, t) = ES [x(s, t)] and p(s, ˜ t) = p(s, t) for all s, t ∈ S × T

(recall house wine example) Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Implications: seller benefits from private information Proposition The ex-ante revenue-maximizing allocation generates weakly higher revenue compared to the best-separable allocation (the mechanism that is optimal when the seller’s type is known).

Proof. best-separable mech may not be S-IC when s private information can construct an equivalent S-IC mechanism as the previous Proposition an allocation with same ex-ante revenue for the seller is feasible

Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Other Implications Access to Certification and Disclosure Rules does not benefit the seller:

Proposition The ability of the seller to certify his information or to commit to some information disclosure rule ex-ante does not lead to a higher ex-ante expected revenue. Any additional disclosure about the seller’s type would just make the IC and PC for the buyer harder to satisfy.

Corollary If a mechanism satisfying (B-IC) and (B-PC) induces a positive ex-ante expected revenue, then there is a feasible mechanism that induces the same ex-ante expected revenue and interim payoff for the buyer.

Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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The Seller’s Mechanism-Selection Program

max X¯ = X (s) = X (s 0 ) subject to B-IC, B-PC and resource constraints

Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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General Implications and Properties Lemma At an optimal mechanism U(t ∗ ) = 0 for some t ∗ ∈ T . B-PC binds at an endogenously determined type.

Lemma The buyer’s interim expected utility is minimized at the same type t min ∈ T at all B-IC mechanisms if and only if for every s t min (s) ∈ arg mint v (s, t) is independent of s.

Corollary Assume that t min ∈ arg mint v (s, t) for every s. At an optimal mechanism, B-PC binds at t min , i.e., U(t min ) = 0.

Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Convex Environments Implications of B-IC and B-PC

let T = [t, t¯]

Assumption (C) For every s ∈ S, v (s, t) is convex in t. Define

  ∂v (s, t) P(t) ≡ ES p(s, t) ∂t

Lemma Let t ∗ ∈ T be any type of the buyer. A mechanism (p, x) is incentive-compatible for the buyer iff P(t 0 ) ≥ P(t) Rt U (t) = U (t ∗ ) + t ∗ P(τ )dτ Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

for all t 0 ≥ t for all t ∈ T

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Reformulating the Seller’s Problem

For any t ∗ ∈ T , let ∗

J(s, t; t ) ≡

( v (s, t) + v (s, t) −

Ft (t) ∂v (s,t) ∂t ft (t) 1−Ft (t) ∂v (s,t) ∂t ft (t)

if t < t ∗ if t > t ∗

For any t ∗ , ex-ante expected revenue: # "Z t¯ ∗ X¯ = ES p(s, t)J(s, t; t )f (t)dt − U(t ∗ ) t

At an optimal mechanism U(t ∗ ) = 0 for some t ∗ .

Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Solving the Seller’s Problem

for every t ∗ ∈ T , set U(t ∗ ) = 0, and choose the assignment rule that maximises X¯ subject to P(·) is increasing and P(t) ≤ 0 for t < t ∗ and P(t) ≥ 0 for t > t ∗ . denote the maximal revenue R(t ∗ ). Then repeat the process for all t∗ ∈ T . the optimal mechanism is obtained for the t ∗ that maximises R(t ∗ ). we illustrate the process in examples

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On the Irrelevance of the Seller’s Information

seller benefits from having private information because uncertainty about the seller’s type relaxes (B-IC) or (B-PC) or both is the seller ever ex-ante indifferent between having private information and not? when this is the case, assuming that the seller’s information is common knowledge is without any loss ex-ante optimal mechanisms are strong solutions (best safe)

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Uncertainty about s does NOT relax B-PC: Proposition Suppose that t min (s) ≡ t min is the same for all s is the same for all buyer-incentive compatible mechanisms (p, x), and that Assumption DC is satisfied. Consider the mechanism (p ∗ , x ∗ ) where, ( 1 if J(s, t, t min ) > 0 ∗ p (s, t) ≡ 0 if J(s, t; t min ) ≤ 0,  x ∗ (s, t) = ES p(s, t)v (s, t) −

Zt

 p(s, τ )

∂v (s, τ ) dτ (= x # (s, t)) . ∂τ

t min

h

i

(s,t) If P(t) ≡ ES p(s, t) ∂v∂t , is increasing in t, then (p ∗ , x ∗ ) is the optimal mechanism for the seller.

not enough.... seller still can strictly benefit from private information Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Illustrative Example Seller benefits from private information even if v strictly increasing in both arguments

Example s ∈ {s1 , s2 }, prior prob of s1 is σ ∈ (0, 1); t ∈ [0, 1] uniform. Match function: v (s1 , t) = t 2 + 1/4, v (s2 , t) = t + 2/3, match function strictly increasing in s and in t The virtual valuations are given by J(s1 , t) = 3t 2 − 2t + 1/4, and J(s2 , t) = 2t − 1/3.

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1.5

1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5

0.5

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.0

Figure : Left graph the match functions; right the virtual valuations.

Pointwise optimisation yields: ( 0 p(s1 , t) = 1

if t ∈ (1/6, 1/2) otherwise,

( 0 p(s2 , t) = 1

if t < 1/6 if t > 1/6.

1 ,t) is not Mechanism not B-IC when seller’s type known: p(s1 , t) ∂v (s ∂t monotonic in t. Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Best-separable mechanism: price 1/4 or 1/2 when s1 , price 5/6 when s2 . Interim: X¯ # (s1 ) = 1/4 and X¯ # (s2 ) = 25/36 25 − 16σ Ex-ante: X¯ # = . 36 If σ ≤ 3/4 then   σ2t P(t) = 1 − σ   1 + σ(2t − 1)

if t < 1/6 if t ∈ (1/6, 1/2) if t > 1/2,

is increasing in t and point wise optimum B-IC. Ex-ante expected revenue when seller has private info: X¯ ∗ = X¯ # +

Z

1/6

J(s1 , t) dt = 0

29 25 25 − 16σ σ + (1 − σ) > , 108 36 36

when σ < 3/4. Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Uncertainty about s does NOT relax B-PC & B-IC:

Definition (Single Crossing) A function f : X → R is single crossing if for every x ≤ x 0 , f (x) ≥ (>)0 implies that f (x 0 ) ≥ (>)0.

Assumption (Single Crossing) Both J R and −J L satisfy single-crossing in t for every s. J(s1 , t) in previous example violates single-crossing

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Proposition Suppose that s is private information and that Assumptions C and Single-Crossing hold. Furthermore, suppose that t min (s) is the same for all s. Consider the mechanism (p ∗ , x ∗ ) where ( 1 if J(s, t; t min ) > 0 p ∗ (s, t) ≡ 0 if J(s, t; t min ) ≤ 0,   and x ∗ (s, t) ≡ Xˆ (t) = ES x # (s, t) which implies that ES u(s, t min ) = 0. The mechanism (p ∗ , x ∗ ) is optimal.

Corollary (Irrelevance of the Seller’s Information) Suppose that t min (s) is the same for all s. Under Assumptions C and Single-Crossing the seller-maximal equilibrium revenue is equal to the case where he has no private information. conditions sufficient–seems impossible to come up with necessary and sufficient conditions Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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When does and informed principal benefit from information? Proposition The seller’s ex-ante expected revenue at a revenue-maximizing mechanism is equal to his expected revenue at the best-separable mechanism if (i) at all feasible mechanisms U(t) is minimal at the same type t ∗ , and (ii) for every (Bayesian) incentive compatible mechanism, there exists an equivalent (in terms of interim payoffs for the buyer and the seller) dominant-strategy incentive compatible mechanism. If either (i) or (ii) fails than it is possible that the seller strictly benefits from having private information.

Remark Gershkov et al. (2013) state sufficient conditions for condition (ii) to hold. Their conditions are different from ours. Koessler – Skreta (PSE – UCL)

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Background–informed principal Myerson (1983) I inscrutability principle introduces core, of undominated, safe mechanisms, expectational equilibrium

Maskin and Tirole (1990) and Yilankaya (1999) I private values: informed principal neither gains nor loses from his private information

Maskin and Tirole (1992), Tisljar (2002, 2003): I common values but agent no private information

Yilankaya (1999) I private values, bilateral trade problem not covered by Maskin and Tirole (1990)

Mylovanov and Troeger (2013a,b) I private values: neologism-proof allocations are equilibria, conditions for irrelevance of seller’s information.

Balestrieri and Izmalkov (2012) I horizontal differentiation problem: particular case of our framework–generalisation to continuous types of an example that appeared in Koessler and Renault (2012)

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Background–other related literatures

signalling through choice of reserve price I

Cai et al. (2007) and Kremer and Skrzypacz (2004)

information disclosure I

Es˝ o and Szentes (2007), Ottaviani and Prat (2001), Rayo and Segal (2010)

advertising I

Anderson and Renault (2006), Johnson and Myatt (2006), Sun (2011), Koessler and Renault (2012)

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References Anderson, S. and R. Renault (2006): “Advertising Content,” American Economic Review, 96, 93–113. Balestrieri, F. and S. Izmalkov (2012): “Informed seller in a Hotelling market,” mimeo. Boone, A. L. and J. H. Mulherin (2007): “How are firms sold?” The Journal of Finance, 62, 847–875. Boone, J. and J. K. Goeree (2009): “Optimal Privatisation Using Qualifying Auctions*,” The Economic Journal, 119, 277–297. Cai, H., J. Riley, and L. Ye (2007): “Reserve price signaling,” Journal of Economic Theory, 135, 253–268. Es˝ o, P. and B. Szentes (2007): “Optimal information disclosure in auctions and the handicap auction,” The Review of Economic Studies, 74, 705. Gershkov, A., J. K. Goeree, A. Kushnir, B. Moldovanu, and X. Shi (2013): “On the equivalence of Bayesian and dominant strategy implementation,” Econometrica, 81, 197–220. Johnson, J. P. and D. P. Myatt (2006): “On the Simple Economics of Advertising, Marketing, and Product Design,” American Economic Review, 96, 756–784. Koessler, F. and R. Renault (2012): “When Does a Firm Disclose Product Information?” Rand Journal of Economics, forthcoming. Kremer, I. and A. Skrzypacz (2004): “Auction selection by an informed seller,” Unpublished Manuscript. Maskin, E. and J. Tirole (1990): “The principal-agent relationship with an informed principal: The case of private values,” Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 379–409. ——— (1992): “The principal-agent relationship with an informed principal, II: Common values,” Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 1–42. Milgrom, P. (2004): Putting auction theory to work, Cambridge Univ Pr. Myerson, R. (1981): “Optimal Auction Design,” Mathematics of Operations Research, 6, 58. ——— (1983): “Mechanism design by an informed principal,” Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 1767–1797. Mylovanov, T. and T. Troeger (2013a): “Informed principal problems in generalized private values environments,” Theoretical Economics, 7, 465–488. ——— (2013b): “Mechanism design by an informed principal: the quasi-linear private-values case,” mimeo. Ottaviani, M. and A. Prat (2001): “The value of public information in monopoly,” Econometrica, 69, 1673–1683. Quint, D. and K. Hendricks (2013): “Indicative Bidding in Auctions with Costly Entry,” Tech. rep., Working paper. Rayo, L. and I. Segal (2010): “Optimal information disclosure,” Journal of Political Economy, 118, 949–987. Riley, J. and R. Zeckhauser (1983): “Optimal selling strategies: When to haggle, when to hold firm,” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 98, 267–289. Sun, M. J. (2011): “Disclosing Multiple Product Attributes,” Journal of Economics and Management Strategy, 20, 195–224. Tisljar, R. (2002): “Mechanism Design by an Informed Principal: Pure-Strategy Equilibria for a Common Value Model,” Bonn–econ discussion Koessler Skreta (PSE –papers. UCL) Mechanism Selection by an Informed Seller June 23, 2014 38 / 38

Mechanism Selection by an Informed Seller

Jun 23, 2014 - sale of experience goods (restaurant meals, vacation packages). ▻ sale of credence goods (accounting services, legal or health advise).

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present electronic business interactions as traditional legal enforcement is impossible .... system. However, for π (as defined by Equation (2)) to supply stable truth-telling .... and agreed that its partner can file reputation reports at the end o

Steptacular: an incentive mechanism for ... - Stanford University
system, and an improvement in the average steps per user per day. The obvious hypothesis is the .... Cloud (EC2) as an extra large instance. It comprised of a.

Informed Decisions by Molecular Profiling
problem akin to ''finding a needle in a haystack,'' when the needle is just another piece of hay! Crystal structures of RecA bound to ssDNA revealed that the NPF stabilizes the ssDNA in a distorted conformation (Figures 1A and 1B), splay- ing out bou

Guanxi and Partner Selection: An Exploratory ... - WordPress.com
Social Ties and Partner Identification in Sino-Hong Kong ... support the idea that social networks provide a valuable resource for reducing IJV partner ..... incorporation of multiple sources of evidence at a site (to improve construct validity), pat

Guanxi and Partner Selection: An Exploratory ... - WordPress.com
international joint ventures,” Journal of International Business Studies, 33(2): 267-289. ... Peter Wong is a Senior Manager at ING Life Insurance Company. ...... Perhaps the best explanation for the case study evidence is that Hong Kong ...

PDF An Introduction to the Theory of Mechanism ...
Contract Theory · Auction Theory · Computer Age Statistical Inference: Algorithms, Evidence, and Data Science (Institute of Mathematical Statistics ...

An Efficient Nash-Implementation Mechanism for ...
Dec 26, 2007 - In fact, it was suggested that the internet transport control ..... 2) Inefficient Nash Equilibria and Reserve Prices: However, not all Nash equilibria of the ...... [15] S. LOW AND P. VARAIYA, “A new approach to service provisioning

An inclusion-based mechanism of chain formation ...
3. (13). [TP JohnC [T' was [VP kissed JohnuC]]]. This representation is not legible at PF since, by definition, uninterpretable features (uFF) cause the crash of the derivation at the interfaces. Thus, it is necessary to assume that some kind of oper

An Authentication and Validation Mechanism for ...
Forensic Validity, System Log Files, Authentication and. Validation, Model. .... accessible to only the root user or the system administrator. An attack on the ...

An alternative mechanism through which economic ...
Abstract. Past models treat economic inequality as an exogenous condition that can provide individuals a dominant incentive to produce collective goods unilaterally. Here we part with that tradition so as to treat economic inequality and collective a

Towards an Access Control Mechanism for Wide-area ...
We call these filters access ..... vices can specify the conditions for principals to activate the role. .... tional Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-35), Big Is-.

Worker Search Effort as an Amplification Mechanism
Jan 31, 2015 - of search time by workers changes systematically over the business cycle – which may ac-. 93 ..... a couple of steps. To start, in this model, an increase in UI benefits has the same effect as. 334 ... Using an online job board,.

The Principal-Agent Relationship with an Informed ...
We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms ... ment trying to elicit consumers' preferences for a public good has private ..... contract that allows her to choose from the allocation ,.u= {1i}ln 1 (of co

The Principal-Agent Relationship with an Informed ...
incentive-compatible allocations that guarantee the agent at least the utility he gets from ... ment trying to elicit consumers' preferences for a public good has private .... and verifiable actions,5 belongs to a compact, convex subset of R;fl; t is

An atomistically informed mesoscale model for growth ...
IV. IMPLEMENTATION AND VALIDATION. The model is implemented using the FEniCS pack- age,34–38 an open source Finite Element Method package, and configured to use the PETSc39,40 library for the linear solver backend. Quadratic Lagrange elements were