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Reading models HOW TO TEST READING COMPREHENSION
I.
Mohammed Pazhouhesh Mashad Teachers’ Training College
The traditional view A.
Also Known as “bottom-up” / “outside-in view
B.
overreliance on words & structure Readers: passive recipients of information Reading text: meaning inside the text Reading: A decoding process
C. D. E.
Mohammed Pazhouhesh
I I . The
III. The MetaMeta - cognitive view
cognitive view
Also Known as “Psycholinguistic” / “top-down” view Reliance on reader’s
A. B.
Schemata or background knowledge
B. C.
Readers are viewed as Identifying the purpose of the reading before reading Identifying the form or type of the text before reading Thinking about the general features or type of the text Projecting the author's purpose for writing the text (while reading ) Choosing, scanning, or reading in detail Making continuous predictions based on
active participants Guessers hypothesis makers model builders
Reading text: devoid of meaning by itself Reading: An interactive process Mohammed Pazhouhesh
1. Linguistic & extra-linguistic knowledge 2. Dexterity to employ effective meta-cognitive strategies
1. strategic readers who are capable of :
Readers: at the heart of the reading process 1. 2. 3. 4.
A. Reliance on reader’s B.
flexible & adaptable reading strategies A.
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1. information obtained earlier 2. prior knowledge 3. conclusions obtained within the previous stages 3
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Types of meaning the reader extracts from the text
Types of knowledge the reader needs in the reading Process Linguistic Knowledge
I.
II.
general world knowledge sociocultural knowledge topic knowledge genre knowledge
D.
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contextual meaning: pragmatic meaning:
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How to select an appropriate passage Hughes provides the following when choosing a text:
to understand information not explicitly stated by
Select samples of suitable length and according to task. Scanning (reading for gist) may require a lengthy passage. A small number of sentences may be appropriate for specific information reading. Providing several different passages increases reliability and gives students new material to work with throughout the test. However, this may not be practical if you are testing scanning as the excerpts may be too short, or skimming when a more lengthy passage is required. Texts with distinct bits of information are good to use if testing for scanning. Candidates should be interested enough in the sample to be attentive, but not overly aroused or distracted by the content. Don’t use information which is likely familiar to candidates as it may be possible for them to answer questions without reading the text. Avoid texts which are culturally laden so to test only reading ability, and not knowledge. Use texts which students have not read.
To skim ((looking for the general meaning ) To scan (reading for specific information) To read critically (evaluating writing styles)
Mohammed Pazhouhesh
C.
the meaning a sentence has only as part of the interaction between writer and reader ( the author’s attitude)
understanding figurative language( simile, metaphor)
C.
propositional meaning:
D.
making inferences (reading between the lines) B.
B.
the meaning a sentence can have only when in context
Heaton’s Reading Skills taxonomy A.
conceptual meaning: the meaning a sentence can have on its own
Extra-linguistic Knowledge
Mohammed Pazhouhesh
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the meaning a word can have on its own
syntactic knowledge morphological knowledge
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How to make the test more reliable (Hughes 1989: 36)
How to make the test more reliable (Hughes 1989: 36)
For candidates For Scoring
- More test items makes a test more reliable. The items should be, as much as possible, independent from each other in fairness to candidates who answered the initial question incorrectly and
- Objective items allow for objective scoring and more reliability.
are therefore unable to answer additional questions on the same topic.
This doesn’t mean that tests such as multiple choice (m/c) with 100% scorer objectivity should only be used, especially considering the amount of pre-testing and enormous difficulty in writing good m/c tests.
Tests used to make important decisions should, in general, be longer than those used to make less important ones. - Don’t provide candidates with too much freedom. Open ended questions can be vague, and performance may vary from on situation to
Have a scoring key and provide it to other scorers. Sample test papers can be used to expand on the answer key and agreements should be made between scorers as to points awarded to certain answers.
another. - Make questions clear and unambiguous. If possible, present a pre-test to colleagues so they may point out alternative interpretations. - Be sure instructions are crystal clear. If it is possible to misinterpret the instructions, it is
If the test requires potentially subjective answers to questions, avoid scorer bias by having candidates identified only by number.
likely that some candidates will. - The test format should not be new to students. If so, the provision of sample tests or practice materials is in order.
In the case where testing is subjective, having more than one independent scorer is preferred.
- Keep the administration of the test consistent and uniform between different groups. Mohammed Pazhouhesh
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types of reading test questions
A. B. C. D. E.
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Question types 1.
literal comprehension interpretation & reorganization inference evaluation planning & implementation
Mohammed Pazhouhesh
Mohammed Pazhouhesh
literal comprehension Reading Skill(s) : Skim the text for gist Scan the text quickly for specific details Understand details
Housewives prefer to hang out their washing on _______ days.
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A. cold, dry
B. rainy
C. windy
D. hot, still
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Question types
Question Types
interpretation & reorganization
3. inference Reading Skill(s):
Reading Skill(s): tell fact from opinion; distinguish relations between ideas or details; understand concepts (grammatical notions) such as cause, result, purpose, comparison, time, etc. understand syntactic structure of sentence and clause
anticipate and predict what will come next ;
read between the lines understand the text by going outside it understand communicative function of discourse understand figurative language (simile, metaphor);
According to the passage, what is most likely to happen on still days? A. There is greater heat loss. B. People feel more comfortable. C. Heat loss becomes slower. D. Wind carries heat away. Mohammed Pazhouhesh
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Question Types
guess the meaning of unknown words/phrases
According to the context, “account for” in line 4, is closest in meaning to __________ . A. calculate B. explain C. describe D. show Mohammed Pazhouhesh
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Question Types
4. evaluation
5. planning & implementation Reading Skill(s):
Reading Skill(s) : summarize / synthesize the whole text; work out an outline; distinguish author’s attitude; recognize cohesion devices and coherence; recognize rhetorical devices
adopt a flexible reading approach vary reading strategies according to the type of material the reading purpose
What method of essay development does the writer use in the passage？ A. Classification B. Comparison and contrast. C. Cause and effect D. chronology
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If you were asked to get the main idea of the passage in a minute, what is the best way to approach the passage? A. Read the whole passage carefully. B. Glance through it. C. Read it paragraph by paragraph. D. Read some paragraphs.
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Kinds of reading test methods
1.
selected response T/F statement MCQ method matching items ordering task
reading test methods
2.
constructed response limited production short-answer items summary test
constructed response
selected response
MCQ summary task gapped summary task
information-transfer techniques
extended production
-limited production -extended production Mohammed Pazhouhesh
longer response to reading passages: 17
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Test Format
Authenticity and interactiveness
An overview of the different formats
Two criteria for test method selection:
Multiple-choice (m/c) Short Answers Guided Short Answers
Authenticity: Reading passages should be similar to those that test takers are likely to read in real-life situations. Skills to be tested should reflect the nature of reading. Inter-activeness: Reading test tasks should involve student participation as much as possible and encourage students to actively produce their responses to reading. Mohammed Pazhouhesh
Mohammed Pazhouhesh
‘Many universities in Europe used to insist that their students speak and write only ___________. Now many of them accept _____________ as an alternative, but not a ____________ of the two.’
Cloze Selective Deletion Gap Filling (Rational Cloze) C-Tests Open-ended 19
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Selective Deletion Gap Filling (Rational Cloze)
Cloze Advantages - The cloze test is a valid indicator of general language ability. - They are relatively easy to compose and grade. - With a high ratio of word deletion, a large number of elements can be tested with a short text. - It is a valid test for reading comprehension. Disadvantages - Some doubts have arisen to its true validity. Uniform deletion of words may not result in random deletion of elements which the test intended. - Some students feel the test is ‘irritating and unacceptable’. - It has been shown that altering the text, deletion rate, or starting point can have an effect on reliability, validity and difficulty of the test. - Rather than examining general reading comprehension or of inferential or deductive competence, the cloze test seems to more accurately test syntax and lexis at the micro sentence level. - It is questionable if success on this test can be accurately analogous to a candidate’s language proficiency in real life. Mohammed Pazhouhesh
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Advantages - Test writers can choose to delete items which
pertain to a specific group of candidates. - Appropriate adjustments can be made after initial analysis.
Disadvantages - Gap filling alone is limited as it confined to testing sentence bound reading skills, whereas m/c and short answer questions test more comprehensive skills. Other tests are needed to test broader skills, for example, reading for gist. Mohammed Pazhouhesh
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C-Tests Advantages -Using several small texts provides a better sampling and representation of the language for testing. More deletions also afford a more complete representation of the text than is possible using the cloze method. - scoring is very objective as there is normally only one correct answer. - Native speakers commonly score 100%, and their results are less variable than on the cloze tests which may make it easier to set passing standards. Results thus far have shown them to be both reliable and valid. Disadvantages - Because it is a recent technique there is lack of empirical evidence for its endorsement. An overly butchered text can be troublesome for students to assimilate. It lacks face validity. (Hughes 1989: 27). Mohammed Pazhouhesh
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