Igor B. Slovtsov Senior Researcher, PhD. Heat and mass transfer Lab. Institute of volcanology FED RAS Piip Avenue, 9 Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 683006, Russia

Geological map of Geysers Valley and Kikhpinych volcano (From Belousov V.I., Leonov V.L.) 1

1 - Upper Pleistocene - Holocene. Alluvial, proluvium and glacial sediments. 2 - Holocene, basalt, andesite. 3 - Middle Pleistocene. Dacite, rhyolite. 4 - Upper Pleistocene. Lacustrine deposits. 5 - Upper - Middle Pleistocene. Ignimbrites. 6 - Upper Pleistocene. Basalt. 7 - Middle Pleistocene. Dykes and monogenic volcano. Basalt. 8 - Middle Pleistocene. Kikhpinych volcano. Basalt. 9 - Middle Pleistocene. Gorelyi plateau. Basalt. 10 - Low-Middle Pleistocene. Basalt, andesite. 11 - Pliocene - lower Pleistocene Complex. Tuff, lava of basalt and dacite. 12 - Hydrothermal fields and hydrothermally altered rocks. 13 - Fault zone. 14 - Endogenic mass and heat upflow. 15 - Regional flow of groundwater.

The Geologic model of geyser formation in the Geysers Valley.

2

3

The slopes in Geysers Valley are very steep. And land-slides are very wide-spread. The position of most geysers in Geysers Valley concern with land-slides. If we’ll try to look at the cross-section of the geyser cone - for example geyser Konus, we’ll see that it consists from the rock fragments cemented by SiO2, mostly represented by opal, but cristoballite and quartz also can occur. Such geological position and cone’s structure can suggest one of the possible models of geyser formation. It can be represented by several stages. Of course, this process can be different from other areas, for example as in Yellowstone or Rotorua. Stage 1 (Fig. 2a) At first thermal activity occurs in the form of boiling hot springs, at low levels, and in the form of vapour-jets at high levels. The ground water flow and upflow of the hot deep-water discharge form the landslide. (The boundary of the landslide schematically pointed). In this case the rocks became water saturated and altered mainly into clays. The fracturing also can play very significant role. The other factors such as earthquake can be a trigger for rock falls and landslides. Stage 2 (Fig. 2b) After landslide, the body of landslide covers the Hot Springs. The landslide is represented by nonfractionated material containing rock fragments of different size. By the activity of surface agents as well as thermal outflow the fractionation of material occurs. This brings to the formation of the geyser’s framework. Stage 3 (Fig. 2c) The framework is formed. The discharge of hot water occurs in the form of vapour-water mixture through the porous space of the framework. As the hot water contains much dissolved silica its precipitation occurs and after some time it brings to the silica sinter formation. Only central vent is left for discharge.

Stage 4 (Fig. 2d) 4

The hot water discharge occurs through this central vent. But in this case the cone works as the refrigerator (cooler) and determine the vapour condensation within it. This forms a column of condensed water and additional pressure in the channel. This additional pressure is influence on the flow rate and on the level of initial boiling in the channel. The flow rate is decreasing and the level of initial boiling is increasing. In these conditions the original boiling hot spring became geyser characterised by pulsating regime of outflow. In this case, the value h - the height of the cone, must be not higher the hydrostatic level, because the outflow from the vent must be. Now, this hot spring is ready to work according following scheme of geyser regime: 1) outflow; 2) eruption; 3) steaming; 4) filling; and so on. Introduction Till 1941 nobody know about the Geysers Valley, though since 1934 many scientists worked in this region. V.L. Komarov left the first data we can find about this area in 1909 (Komarov V.L., 1909). During his trip from Uzon volcano to Kihpinych volcano he saw the huge steams in this valley. In his book "Journey through Kamchatka" he described them as a big fumaroles in the deep canyon at the bottom of Kihpinych volcano. The Geysers Valley first was found and explored by T.I. Ustinova, the research scientist of the Kronotsky Preserver, in 1941. During the summer season of 1945 it was investigated more detail. In 1951, the Complex Kamchatkan expedition of the Ministry of Health of the USSR under the leadership of V.V. Ivanov proceeded the investigations of geysers' regime, hydrogeology and geology. Since 1961 it was investigated by the scientists from the Institute of Volcanology V.V. Averjev, V.M. Sugrobov (1972-1995), S.I. Naboko (1954),Belousov V.I. and Ivanov B.V. (1962),Grib H.N. (1980, 1981), Leonov V.L. (1982). S.I. Naboko (1954, 1980) first investigated the hydrothermal rocks' alteration and chemical types of fluids. There are not many places in the world where recent geysers' activity exists. It's well known geysers in Iceland, Yellowstone, New Zealand, may be less known in Japan, Tibet and some other places. In Kamchtka the geysers activity less known, because till 1990 it was closed region of the USSR. Geysers in Kamchatka concentrated mainly in the Geysers Valley within narrow area approximately 7 2 km . Here, along narrow canyon of river Geysernaya are concentrated 30 large geysers and many small ones. So, the geysers' density is higher than that in any other place on the Earth. Also, geysers were observed not long time ago at Pauzhetka . In the same time, many large thermal pools in the other places in Kamchatka (Kireunskyi, Bolshe-Bannyi hot springs, Uzon, Karymsky lake) with large silica sinters around them, can suggested that such type of the thermal activity also existed in these places some time ago. The geysers' formation and their regime is very interesting and important problem for Geothermic and Volcanology. Here, we won't discuss any physical models of geyser mechanism. There are lot of them (Bunsen R., 1847; Lang K.O., 1880; Day A.L, Allen E.T, 1925; Fenner C.M., 1934; Barth T.W, 1940, 1950; Torkelsson T., 1928, 1950; Droznin V.A., 1982). We must only remember, that geyser is such thermal spring that has periodical eruptions of hot water and vapor and some "sleeping" time- preparation for eruption and can be characterized by several main stages: 1) ERUPTION AND DRYING THE CHANNEL; 2)STEAMING AND FILLING THE CHANNEL; 3)OUTFLOW. This is the geysers' regime specification, and in this work we are assume such determination. Another, very interesting and important problem is Silica transportation and precipitation. Of course, the silica veins and sinters' formation can be obtained without geysers. But the main volumes of silica sinters 5

at the surface concerned with geysers wherever they are-in Kamchatka, Iceland, New Zealand or Yellowstone. The main aim of this work is to try to show the role of hydrothermal activity in geochemistry of Silica and to understand the mechanism of silica transportation and precipitation. Geographical setting The Geysers Valley is situated in the east part of Kamchatka, within the eastern volcanic belt (Fig. 1). Several active volcanoes are surrounding it: Semiachik, Uzon, Krasheninnikov, Kihpinych. River Geysernaya starts its run from the S-E slopes of the Kihpinych volcano and runs into the river Shumnaya through a deep canyon cutting the pumice tuffs' sediments. It's length approximately 15 km. At all its length it's characterized by intensive hydrothermal activity in the form of fumaroles, hot springs, mud and boiling pots. But geysers occur only in the last part - nearly 7 km, before inflow with the river Shumnaya. Nearly 95 % of geysers occur within 2.5 km length zone up from the river Shumnaya. Geological Setting Geysers Valley is situated within Eastern Kamchatkan volcanic belt at the slopes of the Kihpinych volcano and concerned with the intersection of the N-E and E-W fissure zones. The area is composed by the volcanogenic rocks of the Pliocene - Pleistocene age. Volcanic sedimentary rocks (andesite, basalt), represent low complex of Miocene-Pliocene ages that can be seen in the Shumnaya River and in the mouth of Geysernaya River. The upper complex is represented by the volcanic sedimentary rocks (psephytic, psammittic, aleuro-pelitic tuffs and breccia) of andesite-dacite of upper Pliocene-Pleistocene age intruded by the bodies of dacite and basalt. It covered by the rhyolite-dacite lava flows of the Kihpinych volcano. So, it's suggested to be caldera depression filled with lake sediments (Leonov V.L., 1982). One of the necessary conditions of the hydrothermal system formation concerned by many researchers with the intrusion of acid melts into the high permeable volcanic-sedimentary complex. Hydrothermal activity Commonly, it can be distinguished two main hydrogeological complexes: Upper complex concerned with the psephittic and psammittic tuffs. Lower complex concerned with the volcanogenic sedimentary rocks of the Miocene-Pliocene age. This complex includes the main flow of the high temperature (T>150 0C) Cl Na fluids. The hydrothermal activity has normal zones from the highland (slopes of Kihpinych volcano) to the lowland (river Shumnaya) Fig.1. This zonation is characterized by existence of fumarolic activity at the Kihpinych volcano and at its slopes with predominance of H2S and CO2 in gases and sulfate acid hot waters. It's interesting, but at the beginning of river Geysernaya (Valley of Death) there is no thermal activity occur. But in the same time there are lot of H2S and CO2 in gas phase coming from underground. Mixing with ground and surface waters produces acid cold waters and sulfur and even H2S precipitation. That these gases have magmatic genesis is obvious and similar to those conditions of Oku-Aizu (The same situation can be observed at Chinoiki-zawa where the large discharge of H2S exists). This is the Degassing Zone. Lower, from the Valley of Death and up to the Waterfall Trehglavyi, the hydrothermal activity occur mainly in the form of vapor-gas jets with the predominance of CO2 and H2S in its composition, acid hot springs, and mud pots. This is Zone of Degassing, condensing and mixing with groundwater. Third zone is from Trehglavyi waterfall up to the inflow into river Shumnaya. It's characterized by the discharge of deep high temperature Na-Cl fluids that are practically degassed but bringing with them high amounts of dissolved silica. It's the main area of geyser activity. Silica Scaling and Silica Sinters The main discharge of the high temperature Cl - Na fluids exists in the lower part of the Geysernaya river at the altitudes 300-450 m. They bring with them high content of total dissolved silica up to 500 mg/l. 6

Of course, during discharge at the temperatures 98-100 0C and atmospheric pressure, it’s precipitated forming silica sinters around the geysers’ vents up to 40 cm thick. The morphology and situation of the geysers’ cones also very interesting and mainly determined by the geomorphology of the Geysernaya river canyon. Consists from the hydrothermally altered acid tuffs it has many landslides. So, the geysers form their cones in such places of the landslides on the slopes of canyon. The cone forms by cementing of the rock’s fragments around its vent by amorphous silica The fragments of the rock are silicified and altered into the mixture of clay minerals and zeolites. Also, the silica sinters have different surface morphology that mainly depends on the hydrodynamic conditions that determine the physico-chemical conditions of the dissolved silica precipitation. There can be distinguished the following main morphology types: 1) Streamers - discharge channels of water flows 2) Mixed discharge area in the form of water flows and drops 3) Discharge area mainly in the form of drops The flow rates during outflow and eruption from geyser to geyser are very different that determined not only the outflow of silica but also the mechanical damage of the existence silica sinter. In another words, the energy of the outflowing waters so high that no possibilities for silica precipitation exists. It’ s common for Velikan. Its silica sinters more damaging than growing. In the same time such geysers as Troynoy or Konus have more correct cones with thicker silica sinter. When the flow rates more lower and mainly exist in the form of drops (dispersed water during eruption) in this case the energy of outflowing water less and it's possible the silica precipitate. Because the mechanism of silica precipitation, as we can see from the surface morphology of the sinter, occur in the form of stalagmite formation. So, the silica sinter of Troynoy has more thickness than that of Velikan. Of course, we can describe the different structures of silica sinters only by the means of physicochemical conditions, but don’t forget about hydrodynamic conditions of outflow. These several views, which pointed below, represented the different morphology of sinters within Geysers Valley. The model of geyserite formation is upon your will. Try it and contact us.

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Geyser Pervenetz It’s the first geyser at the entrance to the Geysers Valley. It is situated 150 m lower from the confluence of the Geysernaya and Shumnaya rivers, on the left bank of the river Shumnaya. Its vent is set within alluvial sediments, 2 m from the river level. The size of the vent: 1.5 x 0.8 m and nearly 2 m deep. It formed by big rounded stones. Besides from the other geysers it has not silica cone, and silica precipitates only on the surrounding stones forming a thin, up to 2 cm, crusts. Such small amount of precipitated silica can be the result of atmospheric influences - river’s level fluctuation during season time, and also because the main discharge occurs into the river. T-98-99.60C pH-8-49-8.35, The period changed in time (from year to year) - from 36 min (1999) up to 1 h 40 min (1998), and 2 h 18 min (1951). (1) Eruption takes place during 4 min, (2) then steaming, and (3) vent filling with water, (4) and outflow. Flow rate -yet impossible to determine. Water Chemical composition 0

T C 98

pH 8.35

HCO370.1

CO3 -2 0.9

SO4 -2 120.1

Cl 436

NH4 + 0.2

Ca+2 19.2

Mg+2 0.24

Na+ 333

K+ 22.0

H3BO3 64.4

H4SiO4 178

H4SiO4 161

Silica sinter chemical composition SiO2 80.62

TiO2 0.13

Al2O3 0.75

Fe2O3 1.10

FeO 0.10

MnO 0.12

MgO 0.25

CaO 3.65

Na2O 0.69

K2 O 0.39

H2 O 10.38

P2O5 0.07

SUM 99.89

Fig.1. Eruption of the geyser Pervenetz. With great roar the vapor-water mixture ascends up to 20 m height. at the angle 50 0 over the river Shumnaya. 8

Fig.2. Geyser’s Pervenetz vent among the stones covered with the thin silica crusts. Its size 1.5 x 0.8 x 1.5 m.

9

Geyser Troynoy Geyser Troynoy This is the second geyser from the entrance to the Geysers Valley, 500 m far from the Geyser Pervenetz. It is situated on the left bank of the Geysernaya River and on the left bank of a small crick Troynoy, running into the Geysernaya River. It has three active vents with diameter 1.5-0.25 m and most large and beautiful silica sinter that covered the land-slided slope going into the river Geysernaya. On the surface of silica sinter many different micro-landscapes are exist reflecting the different hydrodynamic conditions of silica precipitation. The main active vent (1.5 m) is situated at the 15 m height from the river level. The silica sinter has an extension to the riverside 17 m, with maximum width 16 m, average 9 m. So, it's surface square in average 150 m2 . The thickness of silica sinter changes from 5-7 cm at the vent, up to 35 cm at the bottom. So, the average volume of the silica sinter is approximately 30 m3. Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.5

HCO376.2

CO3 -2 1.5

SO4 -2 148.8

Cl 642

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 19.6

Mg+2 0.24

Na+ 479

K+ 40.1

H3BO3 104.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

183

275

Fig.3. The general view of the silica sinter. `The surface morphology is very different reflecting the different hydrodynamic conditions. Streamers reflect the main water discharge during outflow. Coral-type structure reflects the silica precipitation during eruption occurs mainly of two-phase water-vapor mixture discharge. 10

Fig.4. Geyser Troynoy. Massive, coral -type surface texture. Reflects the silica precipitation from the large fluid’s drops during eruption.

11

Fig.5. Geyser Troynoy. In springtime many landslides occur in Geysers Valley because of very steep slopes. Big stones are coming with these landslides usually damage the silica sinter forming such type of pools on its surface. Many authigenic material are gathered in such pools and during some time this material become rounded like in alluvial conditions that caused by the periodical water flows through these pools.

12

Fig.6. Geyser Troynoy. Streamers and isles of the coral-type surface.

13

Fig.7. Geyser Troynoy. Small lake on the surface of the silica sinter, left after the outflow and eruption. The bottom of the lake is very smooth, reflecting the chemical precipitation of silica in quiet lake’s conditions.

14

Fig.8. The same.

15

Geysers Sakharnyi and Sosed. Water Chemical composition of Sakharnyi T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2

Mg+2

Na+

K+

H3BO3

14.0

-

478

39.5

105.4

Ca+2

Mg+2

Na+

K+

H3BO3

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Water Chemical composition of Sosed T 0C 98

pH 8.2

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 0.6

SO4 -2 134.4

Cl 628

NH4 + 0.15

15.2

0.24

462

33.9

86.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

180

197

Fig.9. These two geysers are situated nearly 30 m from geyser Troynoy on the right bank of the Troynoy creek. Geyser Sakharnyi has a good cone 1 m height and its silica sinter covered the slope going down into the creek. It’s length nearly 5 m and width - 4 m. It has round deep vent 0.5 m. Nearby, at the bottom of geyser Sakharnyi, exist a small geyser Sosed. It seems that it’s one geyser with two vents but they have different hydrodynamic regime and are considered to be different geysers. Geyser Sosed has a fissure vent and its silica sinter can be difficulty distinguished from that of Sakharnyi.

16

Boiling spring Pantsyrnyi It is situated nearly 20 m from Geyser Sakharnyi. Now it is boiling hot spring with temperature 98 0C. But large silica sinter can suggested that some time ago it had geyser’s regime.

Fig.10. The margin of silica sinter is going into the river. The streamer (white) and silica sinter covered with algaes (colored) reflects the different temperature. These algaes live at temperature not higher than 65 0C. It’s become possible for them to live here after geyser became a boiling spring without eruption stage.

17

Fig.11. The stalactites formation at the margin of silica sinter reflecting the very quiet conditions of the fluid’s flow and temperatures less than 65 0C. And of course, algaes like such places very much. And many people also like such places very much. May be the Life came from the hot springs?

18

Geyser Konus. Geyser Konus. This geyser is the most attractive one and also it is the representative of usual type of geyser at Geysers Valley. It is situated in the landslide slope and its cone formed a cone by silicification of clastic material. It’s height 1.80 m, diameter at the bottom 3 m. Silica sinter length 3 m and width 1.5 m. Maximum thickness of the silica sinter at the bottom margin up to 15 cm, minimum - 3 cm. The square of the silica sinter is 10 m2. The volume of silica sinter is approximately 1.0 m3, less than that of geyser Troynoy. The vent 30 cm in diameter composed by clastic material cemented with silica. Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.2

HCO365.9

CO3 -2 0.6

SO4 -2 128.4

Cl 593

NH4 + 0.8

Ca+2 17.6

Mg+2 0.24

Na+ 442

K+ 27.6

H3BO3 89.1

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

179

128

Fig.12. Eruption of the geyser Konus. The water-vapor mixture is erupted at height nearly 2 m and dropped on the cone’s surface flowing to the bottom of the cone.

19

Fig. 13. Geyser Konus-is situated in the landslide slope forming his cone by the cementing of the clastic material by silica. It’s common type of geysers at the Geysers Valley.

20

Fig.14. Geyser Konus. The cementing of the clastic material (colored) with silica formed the geyser's cone. And the vent is very similar to the borehole.

21

Fig.15. Three areas with different surface texture. The central part (streamer) is represented by amorphous silica and very damaged. It reflects the main water flow from the vent. The second area is represented by coral-type texture with small streamers. This is the area of both water streams and waterdrops existence. The third area is more massive and without streamers. It represented by coral-type massive texture reflecting the big water-drops occurrence.

22

Geyser Malyi Geyser Malyi It is the most active geyser in Geysers Valley. Erupting each 30 min. It throws out large amount of water-vapor mixture at the angle nearly 450. The size of the vent 1 x 1.25 m and depth nearly 1 m. It composed from big stones cemented with silica. Eruption is very strong ant this stage takes 5-6 min. During this stage large amount of water-vapor mixture comes out from the vent to the 10 m height. After this, a very strong stage of steaming begins that takes 8-10 min. During this stage a large amount of vapor comes out from the vent up to 200 m height. 20 min after eruption at the bottom of vent the water with T= 98 0C appears and the stage of outflow begins. 8-10 min after the water fills the pool and the stage of outflow begins. 2 min after the boiling can be obtained on the surface and 5 min after the eruption started. Such activity is determined the volume of silica sinter around this geyser. In compare with geyser Troynoy geyser Malyi hasn't large silica sinter, mainly, the silica covered stones with thin crusts with thickness approximately 2-3 cm. At the bottom margin of the silica sinter its thickness can be up to 10 cm. Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Fig.16. The stones cemented and covered with silica crust. The thickness of silica sinter not more than 2-3 cm. Mainly, it covered stones with thin crusts. But the primary surface’s morphology can be seen very clear. 23

Fig.17. Stage of steaming. Dry vapor comes from the vent. The silica sinter cover the stones going down to the river Geysernaya

24

Fig.18. Silica cascades at the bottom of silica sinter. The surface’s morphology reflects that the geyser’s cone built from the different size rocks fragments (mainly, proluvium sediments)

25

Fig.19. Sampling during eruption is very difficult and not very pleasant procedure. The rain with temperature nearly 40 0C during several seconds makes you feel absolutely wet.

26

Fig.20. Thick silica sinter with alges, at the bottom margin of the geyser Malyi; reflecting lower temperature and hydrodynamic conditions

Geyser Bolshoy 27

Geyser Bolshoy is situated 30 m from geyser Malyi. It’s also concerned with a large landslide on the left bank of the river Geysernaya. It’s one of the largest geysers in the Geysers Valley. Its vent placed on the square formed by landslide with size 1.5 x 3.2 m and depth approximately 3 m. The stages of steaming and outflow are not representative as in case with geyser Malyi. During 3-4 min large amounts of water is pushed out from the vent at 12 m height with large amount of vapor and falls down. The water streams go down to the river. In the following 2-3 min the eruption becomes weaker and weaker and 25 min after the beginning of eruption the boiling water covers the bottom of the vent and again begins filling the vent. When it reaches the upper level of the vent, approximately during 1h, the boiling progressed and the water begins pushed out from the vent during the following 20 min (Stage of outflow). There is not much silica sinter around the vent. The thickness of silica sinter nearly 2-3 cm. As in the case of the geyser Malyi, mainly silica covers the rock particles in the form of thin crusts. Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Fig.21. The large vent of the Geyser Bolshoy. It’s clearly can be seen that the vent is situated on the landslide. Nearby the vent damaging of silica sinter occurs more than its precipitation.

28

Fig.22. General view at geysers Bolshoy (1) and Malyi (2). Steaming stage.

Geyser Schel 29

Geyser Schel is situated between geyser Bolshoy and Vitrage - the main fluids’ discharge area on the left bank of the river Geysernaya. 12 m high from the river. It’s also concerned with the landslide in terrace. The walls of the landslide are represented by the argillized tuffs and the geyser’s cone formed from cemented with silica rocks’ fragments of the terrace sediments. The silica sinter approximately 1.8 x 3.2 m. With average thickness 3-5 cm. So, the volumes of silica sinter approximately 0.3 m3. The vent is fissure-like 1.8 x 0.25 m. The activity of this geyser is characterized by two main stages: eruption and sleeping time. Eruption takes nearly 1 - 2 minutes when water with vapor erupted up to 3 m height. Eruption started and ended at once and only weak steaming can be obtained after eruption. Practically absence of the water outflow stage and weakness of eruption (mainly in the form of vapor and big water drops) determined the beautiful not damaged surface texture of the silica sinter. And no streamers can be observed on the cone’s surface. Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Fig.23. General view at geyser Schel. It’s the one of the geysers that practically hasn’t the stage of water outflow. The sequence as the follow: eruption, weak steaming, sleeping time. No water outflow before eruption and no streamers on the silica sinter surface.

30

Geyser Velikan Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Silica sinter chemical composition SiO2 87.10

TiO2 0.18

Al2O3 1.60

Fe2O3 0.80

FeO 0.63

MnO 0.02

MgO 0.30

CaO 0.60

Na2O 0.51

K2 O 0.37

H2 O 7.63

P2O5 0.06

SUM 99.49

Fig.24. General view of the silica sinter;

31

Fig.25.- life and death;

32

Fig.26.- vent during the phase of vaporing

33

Fig.27. Small vents on the building of the geyser Velikan;

34

Fig. 28. Silica sinter shale-type;

35

Fig. 29. Silica sinter with pools;

36

Fig.30. Silica sinter massive type;

37

Fig.31. Pool;

Boiling spring Pink Waterfall

38

Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2

SO4 -2

2.7

139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Fig.32. General view;

39

Fig.33. Silica sinter and alges;

40

Geyser Zhemchuzhnyi Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Fig.34. General view, eruption 41

Geyser Fountain Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Fig.35 - Fountain eruption

42

Geyser Dvoynoy Water Chemical composition T 0C 98

pH 8.74

HCO378.1

CO3 -2 2.7

SO4 -2 139.2

Cl 649

NH4 + 0.1

Ca+2 14.0

Mg+2 -

Na+ 478

K+ 39.5

H3BO3 105.4

H4SiO4

H4SiO4

Dissolved

Colloidal

185

272

Fig.36 - Dvoynoy cone

43

Malahitovyi Grotto

Fig. 37. Constant boiling hot spring Malahitovyi Grotto with temperature 980C. The discharge occurs in the form of vapor - water mixture. The stones around vent covered with silica and alges forming surface like that of malahite. The height of vents from the river level nearly 2,5 m. The flow rate unknown. Composition.

44

Fig. 38. (Photo 43). Geyser Averyi eruption

45

Fig.39. Outflow of Geyser Grotto.

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Fig.40. Outflow of Geyser Grotto.

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Fig.41. The main discharge of the Geyser Valley - the main quantity of geysers are occur here. Geysers Fountain and New Fountain, Grotto, Nepostoyaniyi, Sedlo, Averyi and others. On the back front eruption of the Geyser Averyi.

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