Photon Netw Commun DOI 10.1007/s11107-008-0115-4

Genetic evolutionary algorithm for optimal allocation of wavelength converters in WDM optical networks Kuntal Roy · Mrinal K. Naskar

Received: 9 October 2007 / Accepted: 31 January 2008 © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008

Abstract In this article, a genetic evolutionary algorithm is proposed for efficient allocation of wavelength converters in WDM optical networks. Since wavelength converters are expensive, it is desirable that each node in WDM optical networks uses a minimum number of wavelength converters to achieve a near-ideal performance. The searching capability of genetic evolutionary algorithm has been exploited for this purpose. The distinguished feature of the proposed approach lies in handling the conflicting circumstances during allocation of wavelength converters considering various practical aspects (e.g., spatial problem, connectivity of a node with other nodes) rather than arbitrarily to possibly improve the overall blocking performance of WDM optical networks. The proposed algorithm is compared with a previous approach to establish its effectiveness and the results demonstrate the ability of the proposed algorithm to efficiently solve the problem of Optimal Wavelength Converters Allocation (OWCA) in practical WDM optical networks. Keywords WDM optical networks · Optimal wavelength converter allocation · Differential evolutionary algorithm · Utilization matrix · Wavelength converter allocation matrix

1 Introduction Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) technique utilizes the enormous bandwidth of optical fiber by overcoming the electronic bottleneck of slow switches. WDM optiK. Roy (B) · M. K. Naskar Department of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700 032, India e-mail: [email protected] M. K. Naskar e-mail: [email protected]

cal networks [1,2] utilize lightpaths to exchange information between source-destination node-pairs. A lightpath is an alloptical continuous channel established between a node-pair. Given a set of connections between the source-destination node-pairs, the algorithm to establish the lightpaths is known as Routing and Wavelength Assignment (RWA) [3]. A wavelength converter is an optical device that transforms a signal of one wavelength to a different wavelength. If no wavelength converter is used, a lightpath established between a sourcedestination node-pair always consists of hops of same wavelength. When this wavelength continuity constraint cannot be satisfied, the lightpath is blocked. Either all or limited number of nodes in a WDM optical network may employ wavelength converters to increase the traffic-carrying capacity by relaxing the wavelengthcontinuity constraint. Depending on conversion range, the wavelength converters can be classified into two types: Fullrange Wavelength Converter (FWC) that can convert an input wavelength to any output wavelength and Limited-range Wavelength Converter (LWC) for which the conversion capability is limited to a subset of possible wavelengths, however, with reduced cost. In this article, we have considered FWCs. The improved performance due to the incorporation of wavelength converters is restricted and endorsed largely by the network topology as well as the traffic configuration. In a small network with sufficient wavelength channels and under light traffic, it needs no wavelength converters at all as the probability of wavelength conflict is small. Even under heavy traffic, the performance improvement may be insignificant as the network may not have sufficient free channels to establish a lightpath. Under moderate network size and medium traffic load, it is always advantageous to use wavelength converters to maintain the blocking probability to a lower level, however, the cost of designing WDM optical networks goes high due to the incorporation of wavelength converters. But, due

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to the irregular topology of all-optical wide area network, few nodes may require less number of converters. Moreover, there may be some nodes that do not require any converter at all. Therefore, Optimal Allocation of Wavelength Converters (OWCA) is a challenging and interesting practical issue. 1.1 Previous work Extensive research has been performed for allocation of wavelength converters in WDM optical networks. The existing solutions can be classified into three different categories. (a) (b) (c)

Simple intuitive approach [4,5] Analytical approach [6–10] Simulation-based optimization approach [11]

In [4], it is proposed to allocate a sufficient number of fullrange wavelength converters at some randomly selected nodes. When the randomly selected nodes are large in number, this approach behaves in a manner as if all the nodes are equipped with a sufficient number of FWCs. However, due to random use, this technique is not practically useful. In another intuitive approach [5], it has been suggested to allocate a limited number of FWCs at every node of the network. With this configuration, when the number of FWCs per node is large enough, the network performs well. But, as all-optical wide area networks are irregular in nature, some nodes may suffer for FWCs when they are needed and some of the nodes may be equipped with more number of FWCs than its demand. Therefore, it is far from an efficient or optimal allocation of FWCs. In several analytical techniques proposed in [6–10], the main difficulty is to determine the blocking probability. The assumptions considered in the techniques are Poisson arrival rate, exponential holding time, random wavelength assignment, static routing etc. Random wavelength assignment is not preferred at all in practice for its inefficiency as well as its requirement of dynamic routing. Usually, the analytical models are restrictive and hence are not used in practice. A simulation-based optimization approach is proposed in [11]. This technique has two subsequent steps. First, it gathers the utilization statistics of wavelength converters by computer simulation, and then it subsequently equips the nodes with wavelength converters based on the utilization matrix. This type of simulation-based approach is quite effective and widely applicable as it is not restricted and constrained by any specific model or assumption. The algorithm used conflict resolution algorithm to gather utilization statistics and then allocated FWCs at the nodes of WDM optical networks. In [12], a general formula to compute the overall success probability is presented. With that formula, the optimal converter placement problem is modeled as minimization of a polynomial function under a linear constraint. It is pointed

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out that converter placement problem is a static configuration problem as the computation is performed offline. In [13], the proposed algorithm places a minimum number of wavelength converters in the network so that the number of wavelengths required is equal to the maximal link-load. Some series of lemmas have been developed regarding the optimal allocation of wavelength converters. A framework is designed in [14] with some abstraction concepts and simulation-based optimization technique has been applied for allocation of wavelength converters at the nodes of a WDM optical network. The proposed converter-multiplexing scheme in [15] significantly reduces the number of connections blocked due to unavailability of wavelength converters, i.e., it requires fewer wavelength converters at each node of a WDM optical network. In [16], a quality-of-service (QoS) routing has been considered and a new RWA algorithm with or without wavelength converters is proposed using an abstraction of the network called blocking island (BI) paradigm. In a very recent progress [17], a simple sorting-based approach is proposed with some modification of the utilization matrix as in [11]. Experiments with limited-range wavelength converters are also available in the literature. There are heuristics [18] as well as analytical approaches [19–22] for the same. In [22], a QoS-guaranteed wavelength allocation for WDM networks is considered with limited-range wavelength converters. Continuous-time Markov chain is used to evaluate the lossprobability of different QoS class. 1.2 Proposed approach In this article, the simulation-based optimization approach is chosen for efficient allocation of full-range wavelength converters at the nodes of WDM optical networks. It focuses on the 2nd step of the previous approach (as in [11]), i.e., allocation of wavelength converters after having the utilization statistics. The same definition of the utilization matrix as in [11] is adopted in this paper. Among the different optimization algorithms chosen in [11], we have only considered the maximize the sum of the total utilizations. We have chosen this optimization algorithm over the other two optimization algorithms: maximize the product of the total utilizations and maximize the minimum total utilization because of the fact that the selected optimization algorithm objective better fulfills the need of having diversity of the requirements of wavelength converters at the different nodes in a WDM optical network, i.e., the objective maximize the sum of total utilizations allows us to allocate wavelength converters more at the nodes where it requires and less at the nodes where it does not require much. With this intuitive consideration, we decided to consider only the objective function maximize the sum of total utilizations. However, the proposed algorithm introduces some intuitive reasoning based acceptance criteria

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for selecting a wavelength converter allocation matrix over another. The reason behind such acceptance criteria is the occurrence of critical circumstances due to similar entries in the utilization matrix. The critical circumstances are handled in such a way that the overall blocking probability of WDM optical networks can be kept possibly at some lower level. The proposed acceptance criteria are discussed in Sect. 3 in detail. From this section onward, we will use the previous approach to denote the case of objective function maximize the sum of total utilizations as in [11]. The proposed technique utilizes the directed searching capability of genetic evolutionary algorithm for efficient allocation of wavelength converters at the nodes of WDM optical networks. It is well known that genetic evolutionary algorithm approaches global optimal solution when the population size is large enough. We have chosen a population size of 100 which can be assumed as quite large enough for practical purpose. The proposed algorithm searches through the huge solution space (here, it is the number of different possible wavelength converter allocation matrices) in a directed manner to find out the optimal solution with the selected objective function and the additional acceptance criteria considered. With the introduction of genetic algorithm, we can handle a large scale problem having a huge solution space.

N × (N − 1) distinguishable source-destination nodepairs. So if we consider only shortest-path routing, there can be N ×(N −1) different possible lightpaths considering that only one shortest path is selected (even if there exist multiple shortest paths between a node-pair) depending on the flow of algorithm. Any Routing and Wavelength Assignment (RWA) algorithm can be applied but, the same algorithm should be applied while gathering the utilization statistics and after allocation wavelength converters (using utilization statistics). (e) Full-range Wavelength Converters (FWCs) are assumed. FWCs can convert an input wavelength to any other wavelengths (at least, all the wavelengths corresponding to the different wavelength channels in the network). When a converter is in use, it cannot be used further until the conversion is completed.

3 Problem statement In this section, we describe the optimization problem under consideration and the corresponding mathematical formulation. For convenience of readers and to maintain continuity, utilization matrix and some other necessary particulars described in [11] are briefly discussed in this section. The following notations are used.

1.3 Outline of remaining sections The rest of the article is organized as follows. Network architecture and assumptions are given in Sect. 2. Section 3 states the problem along with the corresponding mathematical formulation. The proposed algorithm is outlined in Sect. 4 with subsequent subsections. Section 5 does a time-complexity analysis of the proposed algorithm. In Sect. 6, we compare our result with that of the previous approach. Also, performance evaluation of the proposed approach showing the handling of critical circumstances is presented in Sect. 6. Finally, Sect. 7 concludes the paper.

N = Number of nodes in the WDM optical network. Mi = Number of FWCs required at node i for complete wavelength conversion. M = Maximum value of the set {M1 , M2 , . . . , MN }. T = Total number of available FWCs. U = Utilization matrix (of order N × (M + 1)), in which the (i, j )-th entry (where, 1 ≤ i ≤ N, 0 ≤ j ≤ M) denotes the percentage of time that j FWCs are being utilized simultaneously at node i. So if node i has J wavelength converters, the utilizations at node i is

2 Network architecture and assumptions

J 

The network configuration and assumptions are stated below.

j =1

(a) A WDM network is a connected graph. Accordingly, each node is reachable from any other nodes in the network. (b) The links between the nodes are bi-directional. There are N nodes in the network labeled as 1, 2, 3, . . ., N . (c) Each link between the nodes contains W different wavelength channels. (d) A lightpath is characterized by a source-destination node-pair (s, d). For an N -node network, there exist

U i,j .

(1)

Given the utilization matrix, U, it needs to determine the wavelength converter allocation matrix, x (of order N × M) where,  1 if j or more FWCs are allocated at node i x i,j = (2) 0 otherwise. Accordingly, the total utilizations at node i is M 

U i,j · x i,j .

(3)

j =1

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where, the number of wavelength converters at node n is

The objective function can be formulated as in [11], Maximize the sum of total utilizations, STU, i.e., N  M 

NWCn = U i,j x i,j

subjected to the following constraints: N M

i=1 j =1 x i,j = T x i,j ≥ x i,j +1 where, 1 ≤ i ≤ N, 1 ≤ j ≤ M − 1 x i,j ∈ {0, 1}.

In this article, the aforesaid objective function is further enhanced considering the conflicts that may arise as described below. However, the aforesaid objective function remains as the prime criteria for accepting one wavelength converter allocation matrix over another. A conflict or critical situation occurs when two or more non-identical wavelength converter allocation matrices have the same sum of total utilizations, STU. The reason behind having duplicate STU for same U but for different wavelength converter allocation matrices is the similar entries in matrix U at different nodes. The proposed approach solves such ambiguity by applying the following rule. Place the converter at node i among the nodes (i, j, k . . .), if the following condition holds: CTUi > CTUj and CTUi > CTUk and . . .

(4)

CTUn =

U n,m · x n,m .

(5)

m=1

Mcritical is the point at which the critical condition arises. The range of Mcritical is 1 ≤ Mcritical < M. The rationale behind such allocation is that the conflicting wavelength converter is assigned to the node (among the conflicting nodes) for which the need of having one more wavelength converter is possibly more than that of the other nodes. But, a critical situation may again arise if CTUi = CTUj or CTUi = CTUk or . . . .

(6)

In such a case, the proposed algorithm considers the spatial problem of allocating wavelength converters at the nodes of the WDM optical network. Accordingly, the solution is proposed by applying the following rule. Place the converter at node i among the nodes (i, j, k, . . .), if the following condition holds: NWCi < NWCj and NWCi < NWCk and . . . .

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(8)

Mcritical is the point at which the critical condition arises. The range of Mcritical is 1 ≤ Mcritical < M. The proposed approach goes down another step further to solve the discrepancy that might arise for some special case when NWCi = NWCj or NWCi = NWCk or . . . .

(9)

In this case, we depend on the connectivity matrix (∧, order N × N ) of the WDM optical network. Connections between the node-pairs are assumed to be bi-directional. An entry of ‘1’ in the connection matrix denotes a connection between the two nodes and a ‘0’ denotes no connection. It is further assumed that for some node, n ∧n,n = 1. Now, the rule is as follows. Place the converter at node i among the nodes (i, j, k, . . .), if the following condition holds: NCONNi < NCONNj and NCONNi < NCONNk and . . . (10) where, the number of connections at node m, NCONNm =

N 

∧m,n .

(11)

n=1

where, current total utilization at node n, M critical

x n,m

m=1

i=1 j =1

(i) (ii) (iii)

M critical

(7)

The rationale behind such a decision is that a node having greater outgoing connections has higher possibility of passing the calls to the connecting nodes without taking the help of wavelength converters. If further conflict occurs due to the same number of outgoing connections for two or more different nodes, the proposed algorithm selects a node arbitrarily. Anyway, it should be pointed out that the conflict handling rules add some overhead of computation. But, allocation of wavelength converters, i.e., determining the wavelength converter allocation matrix, x is offline. So, the subsequent rules of handling the conflicting circumstances do not add any real-time overhead and in this way we can possibly achieve a better blocking performance of WDM optical networks.

4 Proposed algorithm In this article, a genetic evolutionary algorithm is applied as an optimization algorithm [23–25]. Genetic Algorithms (GAs) are originated from the studies of cellular automata conducted by John Holland [23] and his colleagues at the

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University of Michigan. Its applications include diverse areas such as job-shop scheduling, training neural nets, image feature extraction or recognition, pattern recognition, data mining, bio-informatics etc. Genetic algorithms [26–29] are modeled on the concept of natural selection and evolution as in the same way the species adopt their environment. GAs are not random search algorithms rather the search is done in a directed manner inside the solution space exploiting the advantages of natural genetic system. In this article, more specifically, we have selected differential evolutionary algorithm [30–34]. Differential Evolution (DE) is a simple but effective population-based genetic type of algorithm for solving real-valued test function. Historically, DE grew out of Ken Price’s attempts to solve the Chebychev Polynomial fitting Problem that had been posed to him by Rainer Storn. Since then DE is emerging as a dominant and well-established probabilistic search algorithm. Similar to genetic algorithm, DE maintains a population of individuals, P (t) = {x t1 , x t2 , . . . , x tn }, for generation t. Each individual is called chromosome (or genotype). Then, a new population is formed in generation t + 1 with the help of some evolutionary mechanisms (e.g., selection, crossover, mutation) and the population at generation t. The new generation may not be better than the previous generation with respect to the convergence. But the ultimate goal is to reach the generation at which all the individuals are identical. At that generation, the algorithm converges. Unlike GA, DE relies on mutation as primary search mechanism and employs a non-uniform crossover. The steps of the proposed algorithm are described below in subsequent subsections. 4.1 Chromosome representation Wavelength converter allocation matrix, x, is a twodimensional matrix. Accordingly, at the first thought, it might seem that the individuals (chromosomes) in a population should be also two-dimensional matrices. But due to the problem constraints, it can be converted to one-dimensional matrix as demonstrated by an example below. Let the ith individual at tth generation, x ti

= [1 1 10 00 11 11 11

1 0 0 1 0 0

0; 0; 0; 1; 0; 0]

Then, the one dimensional matrix corresponding to the above two-dimensional matrix is yti = [3 1 0 4 2 2] where, each entry in yti is the row-wise sum of the number of ‘1’s in x ti .

For a chromosome, we have one constraint to be taken care of. The constraint is the sum of the entries in the matrix, yti to be equal to the total number of available wavelength converters, T. 4.2 Objective function In this article, the objective is to maximize the sum of total utilizations, STU. However, the proposed approach further enhances the objective function as described and explained in Sect. 3. 4.3 Fitness function—acceptance criteria Acceptance of an individual over another is done on the basis of the sum of total utilizations, STU (i.e., selecting the individual for which the STU is greater than that of the other). For two distinct individuals, if STU is same, the proposed algorithm accepts one over another following the rules as described in Sect. 3. 4.4 Initial population The population at the first generation has to be pre-generated to initiate the algorithm. The initial population has an effect over the speed of convergence of evolutionary algorithm depending on how much close the individuals (chromosomes) are toward the solution. In this article, we have generated the initial population with a simple random number generationbased algorithm. No efforts have been made to construct the initial population in some specific way since it is observed that the convergence of the genetic algorithm is occurring within an acceptable number of generations (e.g., 50 generations can be considered as an acceptable limit of convergence for a genetic algorithm). The step-wise algorithm for generating the initial population is given in Algorithm 1. Algorithm 1 Initial population generation inputs: NP ← Number of individuals in a generation; N ← Number of nodes in the WDM optical network; Mi ← Number of FWCs required at node i for complete wavelength conversion; M ← max{M1 , M2 , . . . , MN }; T ← Total number of available FWCs. output: y1 ← Initial population. Step 1: Repeat Step1 for NP times. i ← select a position corresponding to an individual (no duplicates allowed). Step 2: Initialize variable totalWC to 0. Repeat Step 2 to Step 7 for N times. n ← select a node randomly (no duplicates allowed). Step 3: allocatedWC ← rand(M). // rand(M) generates a random integer between 0 to M, i.e., 0 ≤ rand(M) ≤ M // Step 4: totalWC ← totalWC + allocatedWC.

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Photon Netw Commun Step 5: if totalWC > T then allocatedWC ← allocatedWC − (totalWC − T). Step 6: y1i (n) ← allocatedWC. Step 7: If totalWC < T then Repeat from Step 2.

4.5 Selection Selection is a genetic evolutionary mechanism to proceed toward the next generation. The procedure is to select some individuals from the previous generation for subsequent genetic evolutionary mechanisms, e.g., mutation, crossover to be applied. In this article, three different individuals are selected randomly from a population. Selection of three individuals facilitates us to apply differential technique of the differential evolutionary algorithm. It is a standard for differential evolutionary algorithm. These three individuals are mutated and thereby generate a new individual in the next generation depending on crossover mechanism.

selected nodes. The corresponding algorithm is given in Algorithm 3.

Algorithm 3 Constraint satisfaction inputs: yti ← ith individual at tth generation; N ← Number of nodes in the WDM optical network; Mi ← Number of FWCs required at node i for complete wavelength conversion; M ← max{M1 , M2 , . . . , MN }; T ← Total number of available FWCs. output: yti ← ith individual at tth generation after constraint satisfaction. Step 1: totalWC ← number of allocated wavelength converters for the individual yti . Step 2: If totalWC > T then Randomly select a node and reduce a wavelength converter at that node (of course, if that node has some wavelength converter allocated). Continue until total number of allocated wavelength converters, totalWC reduces to exactly T. Step3: Else if totalWC < T then Randomly select a node and add a wavelength converter at that node (of course, the number of wavelength converters allocated at that node should not exceed M). Continue until total number of allocated wavelength converters, totalWC reaches T.

4.6 Mutation 4.8 Crossover The three chromosomes selected by selection mechanism undergo mutation depending on the value of mutation perturbation scale factor (F). The mutation mechanism that is employed in this article is given in Algorithm 2. Algorithm 2 Mutation inputs: F ← Mutation perturbation scale factor; y1t , y2t , y3t ← three selected chromosomes at tth generation; N ← Number of nodes in the WDM optical network. output: yDerived t ← Derived chromosome after mutation at tth generation. Step 1: yDerived t ← y1t (1 : N) + F∗ [ y2t (1 : N) − y3t (1 : N)]

From Algorithm 2, it can be easily observed that if the three selected individuals are identical, mutation will generate an individual that is already there in previous generation. Also, we can notice the differential property of the algorithm during mutation. In this article, the mutation perturbation scale factor (F) is chosen as 0.9. It needs to be pointed out that no values in an individual can be a fraction. So, rounding mechanism is applied as needed.

The current individuals are retained or replaced in the next generation depending on the crossover (recombination) constant. The crossover operation that is employed in this article is given in Algorithm 4. The crossover constant (CR) is chosen as 0.5. As said earlier, unlike GA, DE relies on mutation as the primary search mechanism and employs a non-uniform crossover. Therefore, the crossover step in DE is quite simple with a straightforward if-else condition.

Algorithm 4 Crossover inputs: CR ← Crossover (or recombination) constant; yPrev t ← a previous individual; yDerived t ← a derived chromosome after selection and mutation operation; output: yNew t+1 ← new chromosome after crossover in the next generation. Step 1: rnd ← Generate a random number between ‘0’ and ‘1’. Step 2: If rnd ≥ CR then yNew t+1 ← yDerived t . Else yNew t+1 ← yPrev t .

4.7 Constraint satisfaction

4.9 Similarity ratio—convergence criteria

After mutation, the chromosomes may not satisfy the constraint of total number of available converters. Accordingly, the constraint is taken care of after mutation. The proposed algorithm satisfies the constraint by adjusting (adding/ removing) the wavelength converters at the randomly

Similarity ratio denotes the similarity of the individuals in a generation. When similarity ratio reaches 1, i.e., all the individuals in a generation are identical, the algorithm converges. The procedure that determines the similarity ratio is given in Algorithm 5.

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Algorithm 5 Similarity ratio calculation inputs: x ti ← ith individual (two dimensional matrix) at tth generation; NP ← Number of individuals in a generation; N ← Number of nodes in the WDM optical network; Mi ← Number of FWCs required at node i for complete wavelength conversion; M ← max{M1 , M2 , . . . , MN }; T ← Total number of available FWCs. output: SRt ← Similarity ratio at tth generation. Step 1: Initialize SRt to 0. For each n, repeat Step 2 for N times. Step 2: For each m, repeat Step 3 to Step 6 for M times. Step 3: sum ← 0. Step 4: For each individual, i in generation t, repeat Step 5. Step 5: sum ← sum + x ti (n, m). Step 6: If sum > 0.9 × NP then SRt ← SRt + sum. Step 7: SRt ← SRt /(NP ∗ T). // Normalize //

4.10 Algorithm So far we have described different modules of the proposed algorithm. In this subsection, the proposed algorithm is accumulated as a whole and presented in a simple manner (in Algorithm 6). Algorithm 6 Proposed genetic evolutionary algorithm Step1: Initialize no_of_generations to 0. Set some value for maximum allowable no_of_generations. Step2: Generate initial population. // subsection 4.4 // Step3: Determine Similarity Ratio, SR for the initial population. // subsection 4.9 // Step4: While SR is not 1 or no_of_generations < no_of_generationsmax Do Selection. // subsection 4.5 // Do Mutation. // subsection 4.6 // Satisfy Constraints. // subsection 4.7 // Do Crossover. // subsection 4.8 // Calculate Similarity Ratio, SR for the current generation. // subsection 4.9 // Increment no_of_generations by 1.

5 Time-complexity analysis The following notations are used for time-complexity analysis of the algorithms described in the previous section. N= M= T = NP = G=

Number of nodes in the WDM optical network. Number of maximum wavelength converters per node. Number of given wavelength converters. Number of individuals in a generation. Number of generations.

With the above notations, we compute the time complexity as follows: O(NP ∗ N ) = Time required to generate initial population. O(N ∗ M) =Time required to calculate fitness value of one individual.

O(NP ∗ N ) = Time required for selection operation. O(NP ∗ N ) = Time required for mutation operation. O(NP ∗ N) = Time required to satisfy constraints for a population. O(NP ∗ N ) = Time required for crossover. O(NP ∗ N ∗ M) = Time required to calculate similarity ratio. Overall Time Complexity = O(NP ∗ N ) + O(NP ∗ N ∗ M) + (G − 1) ∗ [O(NP ∗ N ∗ M) + O(NP ∗ N ) + O(NP ∗ N ) + O(NP ∗ N ) + O(NP ∗ N ) + O(NP ∗ N ∗ M)] = G ∗ [O(NP ∗ N ∗ M) + O(NP ∗ N )] ≈ O(G ∗ NP ∗ N ∗ M). It should be pointed out that G denotes the number of generations for which the algorithm actually has run before convergence (less than or equal to the value set for maximum allowable number of generations). The previous approach as in [11] (for the object function maximize the sum of total utilizations) needs O(N 2 M 2 T 2 ) time to find the shortest path in the constructed directed graph that is very time consuming for a large scale problem. For example, let us consider the following values: N = 14, M = 5, T = 20, NP = 100, G = 50. Accordingly, the time complexity of the previous approach is an order of 1960000, whereas the time-complexity of the proposed approach is an order of 350000 that is less than one-fifth of the previous approach. A significant point of observation is that the time complexity of the proposed approach is independent of T , whereas the time complexity of the previous approach is quadratically dependent on T . However, for small-scale problems, the proposed approach has higher time complexity, but as the solution of the present problem is not real time, we do not need to really bother about the computation time for some smallscale problems. 6 Results This section comprises two subsections. In the first subsection, the proposed approach is compared with the previous approach (as in [11]) and in the next subsection, the effectiveness of the proposed approach is established with a number of examples. 6.1 Comparison with previous approach Let us assume the utilization matrix as in Table 1. The first column of the utilization matrix denotes the percentage of time that no FWCs are utilized at the nodes. From Table 1, it can be observed that the number of nodes in the network, N , is 5 and the maximum number of allowable wavelength converters at a node is 3 (as the number of

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Photon Netw Commun Table 1 Utilization matrix, U 0.44

0.41

0.13

0.02

0.44

0.38

0.13

0.05

0.52

0.44

0.03

0.01

0.20

0.51

0.13

0.16

0.64

0.25

0.07

0.04

Table 2 Wavelength converter allocation matrix, prevX (as in [11]), for T = 6

Table 3 Wavelength converter allocation matrix, x (proposed approach), for T = 6

6.2 Performance evaluation 1

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

columns in Table 1 is 4). We have assumed that the total number of available converters, T , is 6 to compare the proposed approach with the previous one [11]. According to the previous approach, the wavelength converter allocation matrix, prevX, is given in Table 2. The previous approach is inefficient in the sense that it does not take care of the critical situation that may arise as can be observed in the given example. It chooses arbitrarily the node 1 over the nodes 2 and 4 to allocate the last wavelength converter. But, we find that the previous converter utilization at node 4 (0.51) is greater than that of the node 1 (0.41) and node 2 (0.38). Intuitively, the requirement of a converter at node 4 is more than that of node 1 or node 2. Accordingly, the wavelength converter allocation matrix, x, according to the proposed approach is given below in Table 3. Fig. 1 NSFNET T1 backbone network (not drawn to scale)

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Here, a simple example is chosen for easy demonstration of the efficiency of the proposed approach over the previous approach. It can be intuitively justified that the proposed approach can have possibly better blocking performance. For a network with larger nodes, such considerations would have more effect over the blocking performance.

In this subsection, accuracy and performance of the proposed algorithm are assessed. The critical circumstances that may arise as described in Sect. 3 are presented with examples. We have selected NSFNET T1 backbone network for experimental purpose. The corresponding network is shown in Fig. 1. It has 14 nodes and 21 bi-directional links. The node numbers assumed are pointed inside the corresponding node-circles. We have chosen the number of individuals in a generation as 100 for all the experiments. Also, the maximum number of allowable generations for simulation is chosen as 100. However, it is observed that the algorithm converges before 50 generations. Let us assume the utilization matrix, U, as in Table 4. Since there are six columns in Table 4, it is obvious that M = 5. We have assumed T , the total available wavelength converters to be of four different values (18, 20, 21 and 24) to show the critical circumstances and therefore to establish the effectiveness and novelty of the proposed algorithm. Case 1 (For T = 18) The corresponding wavelength converter allocation matrix, x is given in Table 5. It can be observed from Table 5 that conflict occurs between the nodes 1 and 11 during allocation of 18th converter. From Table 4, it can be noticed that the entries in the 3rd column for the rows 1 and 11 are both 0.13. From Eq. 5 in Sect. 3, the current total utilization at node 1, CTU1 = (0.44 + 0.41) = 0.85 and at node 11, CTU11 = (0.46 + 0.38) = 0.84.

Photon Netw Commun Table 4 Utilization Matrix, U Row 1

0.44

0.41

0.13

0.02

0.00

0.00

Row 2

0.41

0.38

0.16

0.03

0.02

0.00

Row 3

0.52

0.44

0.03

0.01

0.00

0.00

Row 4

0.11

0.51

0.22

0.10

0.04

0.02

Row 5

0.64

0.25

0.07

0.04

0.00

0.00

Row 6

0.59

0.32

0.09

0.00

0.00

0.00

Row 7

0.12

0.54

0.22

0.07

0.03

0.02

Row 8

0.47

0.43

0.08

0.01

0.01

0.00

Row 9

0.71

0.21

0.08

0.00

0.00

0.00

Row 10

0.21

0.57

0.12

0.04

0.03

0.03

Row 11

0.46

0.38

0.13

0.03

0.01

0.01

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0.39

0.51

0.09

0.01

0.00

0.00

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0.35

0.43

0.12

0.09

0.01

0.00

Row 14

0.67

0.28

0.03

0.02

0.00

0.00

Table 5 Wavelength converter allocation matrix, x (for T = 18)

Fig. 2 Number of generation versus similarity ratio curve for utilization matrix as in Table 4 and T = 18 with NSFNET Network in Fig. 1 Table 6 Wavelength converter allocation matrix, x (for T = 20)

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So, CTU1 > CTU11 . Applying rule (4) as in Sect. 3, the proposed algorithm allocates the 18th converter at node 1 rather than at node 11. The corresponding number of generation versus similarity ratio curve is shown in Fig. 2. The algorithm (as in Fig. 2) converges at generation 44. It can be observed from Fig. 2 that there is a flat region between generations 36 and 43 and then a transition toward convergence. The conflict of allocating the last, i.e., the 18th converter is solved in this region. Another interesting point to observe is that there exist dips in the curve that signify that similarity ratio decreases in the next generation. It can obviously happen for a genetic algorithm but, it should be pointed out that such a decrease does not happen for a significant number of subsequent generations. Case 2 (For T = 20) The corresponding wavelength converter allocation matrix, x, is given in Table 6.

The interesting point to be analyzed is that the proposed algorithm has allocated the last wavelength converter at node 10 instead of node 13. But both the cases would have given us the same sum of total utilization (STU). Applying Eq. 5 from Sect. 3, the current total utilization at node 10, CTU10 = (0.21 + 0.57) = 0.78 and at node 13, CTU13 = (0.35 + 0.43) = 0.78. So, rule (4) is failing to allocate the 20th converter as condition (6) arises, i.e., CTU10 = CTU13 . Now, applying Eq. 8, the number of wavelength converters at node 10, NWC10 = 1 and at node 13, NWC13 = 1. Apparently, rule (7) also has failed to allocate the last converter as condition (9) arises, i.e., NWC10 = NWC13 . Now, applying Eq. 11, the number of connections

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Photon Netw Commun

Fig. 3 Number of generation versus similarity ratio curve for utilization matrix as in Table 4 and T = 20 with NSFNET network in Fig. 1

at node 10, NCONN10 = 2

//From Fig. 1

and at node 13, NCONN13 = 3.

//From Fig. 1

Fig. 4 Number of generation versus similarity ratio curve for utilization matrix as in Table 4 and T = 21 with NSFNET network in Fig. 1

of generation versus similarity ratio curve is shown in Fig. 4. Also, in this case, there exist dips in the curve that is for the same reason as described for Fig. 2.

Thus, the algorithm allocates the last converter at node 10 instead of node 13 applying rule (10) since, NCONN10 < NCONN13 . The corresponding Number of generation versus similarity ratio curve is shown in Fig. 3. It can be observed from Fig. 3 that several flat regions occur between generations 32 and 45. The conflict of allocating the last converter is solved in these regions. The algorithm converges at generation 47. Also, in this case, there exist dips in the curve that is for the same reason as described for Fig. 2.

Case 4 (For T = 24) The corresponding wavelength converter allocation matrix, x is given in Table 8. The proposed algorithm has allocated the last two converters (23rd and 24th) at the nodes 6 and 12 among the conflicting nodes 6 (for 2nd converter), 12 (for 2nd converter), and 13 (for 3rd converter). Applying Eq. 5 from Sect. 3, the current total utilization at node 6, CTU6 = (0.59 + 0.32) = 0.91 at node 12, CTU12 = (0.39 + 0.51) = 0.90

Case 3 (For T = 21) The corresponding wavelength converter allocation matrix, x, is given in Table 7. It can be pointed out that there occurs no conflict during the allocation of wavelength converters for this case. The corresponding number

and at node 13, CTU13 = (0.35 + 0.43 + 0.12) = 0.90.

Table 7 Wavelength converter allocation matrix, x (for T = 21)

Table 8 Wavelength converter allocation matrix, x (for T = 24)

Applying rule (4), i.e., as CTU6 < CTU12 and CTU6 < CTU13 , the 23rd converter is allocated at node 6. But, the

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Fig. 5 Number of generation versus similarity ratio curve for utilization matrix as in Table 4 and T = 24 with NSFNET network in Fig. 1

critical circumstances arises according to condition (6) as CTU12 = CTU13 . Now, applying Eq. 8, the number of wavelength converters at node 12, NWC12 = 1 and at node 13, NWC13 = 2. Apparently, rule (7) can be applied as NWC12 < NWC13 and accordingly the proposed algorithm allocates the 24th converter at node 12 rather than at node 13. The corresponding Number of generation versus similarity ratio curve is shown in Fig. 5. The algorithm converges at generation 39 in this case. There are subsequent flat regions in the curve before convergence as the aforesaid conflicts are solved in these regions. Also, in this case, there exist dips in the curve that is for the same reason as described for Fig. 2.

7 Conclusions In this article, a genetic evolutionary algorithm is proposed for optimal allocation of FWCs in WDM optical networks. The novelty of the proposed approach lies in its intuitive reasoning-based acceptance criteria for the individuals in a generation as described in Sect. 3. As the time complexity is concerned, the proposed algorithm is performing better than the previous approach for large-scale practical problems. As the memory complexity is concerned, like all other genetic algorithms, we do not need to store the data for every generation and in this way it is not a problem to handle larger-scale problems (i.e., with higher number of nodes and a higher value of the maximum number of wavelength converters that can be allocated at a node). We have performed experiments over widely known NSFNET T1 backbone network to establish the practical feasibility of the proposed

genetic algorithm. The proposed idea is compared with that of the previous approach and presented with examples to justify its effectiveness. The proposed genetic evolutionary algorithm can be applied to the case of limited-range wavelength converters. The problem formulation with limited-range wavelength converters is complex compared to the case of full-range wavelength converters as there is an extra constraint involving the range of wavelength converters. The optimization problem becomes more complex if we consider limited-range wavelength converters with different range-conversion capabilities. However, the proposed genetic evolutionary algorithm is a generic kind of algorithm that can be applied once the mathematical objective functions for a problem are formulated.

References [1] Mukherjee, B.: Optical Communication Networks. McGrawHill, New York (1997) [2] Ramaswami, R., Sivarajan, K.N.: Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective. Morgan Kaufmann Publisers (1998) [3] Roy, K., Naskar, M.K., Biswas U.: Adaptive dynamic wavelength routing for WDM optical networks. In: 3rd International conference on Wireless and Optical Communications Networks – 2006 (WOCN’06), IEEE Communication Society, Bangalore, India, pp. 1–4, 11–13 April 2006 [4] Subramaniam, S., Azizoglu, M., Somani, A.K.: All-optical networks with sparse wavelength conversion. IEEE/ACM Trans. Network. 4(4), 544–557 (1996) [5] Lee, K.C., Li, V.O.K.: A wavelength-convertible optical network. IEEE/OSA J. Lightwave Technol. 11(5/6), 962–970 (1993) [6] Ramamurthy, S., Mukherjee, B.: Fixed-alternate routing and wavelength conversion in wavelength routed optical networks. IEEE GLOBECOM 4, 2295–2302 (1998); Sydney, Australia [7] Subramaniam, S., Somani, A.K., Azizoglu, M., Barry, R.A.: The benefits of wavelength conversion in WDM networks with nonpoisson traffic. IEEE Commun. Lett. 3(3), 81–83 (1999) [8] Subramaniam, S., Azizoglu, M., Somani, A.K.: On the optimal placement of wavelength converters in wavelength-routed networks. Proc. INFOCOM 2, 902–909 (1998); San Francisco, CA, USA [9] Thiagarajan, S., Somani, A.K.: An efficient algorithm for optimal wavelength converter placement on wavelength-routed networks with arbitrary topologies. Proc. IEEE INFOCOM 2, 916–923 (1999); New York, NY, USA [10] Arora, A.S., Subramaniam, S.: Converter placement in wavelength routing mesh topologies. Proc. IEEE ICC 3, 1282–1288 (2000); New Orleans, LA, USA [11] Xiao, G., Leung, Y.W.: Algorithms for allocating wavelength converters in all-optical networks. IEEE/ACM Trans. Network. 7(4), 545–557 (1999) [12] Gao, S., Jia, X., Huang, C., Du, D.: An optimization model for placement of wavelength converters to minimize blocking probability in WDM networks. IEEE/OSA J. Lightwave Technol. 21(3), 684–694 (2003) [13] Jia, X., Du, D., Hu, X., Huang, H., Li, D.: Placement of wavelength converters for minimal wavelength usage in WDM networks. IEEE INFOCOM 3, 1425–1431 (2002); New York

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Photon Netw Commun [14] Ding, Z., Hamdi, M.: On the management of wavelength converter allocation in WDM all-optical networks. IEEE GLOBECOM 5, 2595–2600 (2003); San Francisco, CA, USA [15] Gowda, S., Sivalingam, K.M.: Protection mechanisms for optical WDM networks based on wavelength converter multiplexing and backup path relocation techniques. IEEE INFOCOM 1, 12–21 (2002); New York [16] Frei, C., Faltings, B., Hamdi, M.: Resource allocation in communication networks using abstraction and constraint satisfaction. IEEE J. Select. Areas Commun. 23(2) (2005) [17] Roy, K.: A simple approach for optimal allocation of wavelength converters in WDM optical networks. In: 4th International Conference on Wireless and Optical Communication Networks’07 (WOCN 2007), Grand Hyatt, Singapore, pp. 1–5, 2–4 July 2007 [18] Venugopal, K.R., Shivakumar, M., Kumar, P.S.: A heuristic for placement of limited range wavelength converters in all-optical network. Proc. IEEE INFOCOM 2, 908–915 (1999); New York, NY, USA [19] Yates, J., Lacey, J., Everitt, D., Summerfield, M.: Limited-range wavelength translation in all-optical networks. Proc. IEEE INFOCOM 3, 954–961 (1996); San Francisco, CA, USA [20] Tripathi, T., Sivarajan, K.: Computing approximate blocking probabilities in wavelength routed all-optical networks with limited-range wavelength conversion. Proc. IEEE INFOCOM 1, 329–336 (1999); New York, NY, USA [21] Ramaswami, R., Sasaski, G.: Multiwavelength optical networks with limited wavelength conversion. IEEE/ACM Trans. Network. 6(6), 744–754 (1998) [22] Tachibana, T., Kasahara, S.: QoS-guaranteed wavelength allocation for WDM networks with limited-range wavelength conversion. IEICE Trans. Commun. E87-B(6), 1439–1450 (2004) [23] Holland, J.H.: Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems. MIT Press, Cambridge (1975) [24] Horowitch, E., Sahani, S.: Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms. Galgotia, New Delhi [25] Horst, R., Pardalos, P.M. (eds.): Handbook of Global Optimization. Kluwer Academic Publishers (1995) [26] Goldberg, D.E.: Genetic Algorithms in Search Optimizations and Machine Learning. Addison Wesley, New York (1989) [27] Srinivas, M., Patnaik, L.M.: Genetic algorithm: a survey. IEEE Comput. Mag. 27(6), 17–26 (1994) [28] Mukhopadhyay, A., Biswas, U., Naskar, M.K.: A genetic algorithm for traffic grooming in unidirectional SONET/WDM rings. IEEE India Annual Conference, INDICON, 2004, IIT, Kharagpur, India, pp. 252–255, 20–22 December 2004 [29] Mukhopadhyay, A., Biswas, U., Naskar, M.K., Maulik, U., Bandyopadhyay S.: In: Olariu, S., Zomaya, A.Y. (eds.) Handbook of Bioinspired Algorithms and Applications, 1 edn. Chapman & Hall/CRC, 29 September 2005 [30] Bäck, T., Fogel, D.B., Michalewicz, Z.: Handbook of Evolutionary Computation. Institute of Physics Publishing and Oxford University Press (1997) [31] Storn, R., Price, K.: Differential evolution—a simple and efficient adaptive scheme for global optimization over continuous spaces. J. Glob. Optim. 11(4), 341–359 (1997) [32] Yao, X., Liu, Y., Lin, G.: Evolutionary programming made faster. IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput. 3(2), 82–102 (1999) [33] Tsui, K.C., Liu, J.: An evolutionary multiagent diffusion approach to optimization. Int. J. Artif. Intell. Pattern Recognit. 16(6), 715–733 (2002) [34] Roy, K., Naskar, M.K.: Genetic evolutionary algorithm for static traffic grooming to SONET over WDM optical networks. J. Comput. Commun., Elsevier 30(17), 3392–3402 (2007)

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Author Biographies Kuntal Roy received his B.E. (Hons) from Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India in the year 2003. He held several technical positions of application programmer in Interra IT, TCS (RFID center of excellence), and IBM during 2003–2006. From September, 2006, he is pursing Master of Science in Embedded Systems Design at Advanced Learning and Research Institute (ALaRI), University of Lugano, Switzerland. His research interests include WDM optical networks, microelectoronics, VLSI circuit design, nanotechnology, low power design, and embedded systems design. He is an author/co-author of the following published/accepted articles in WDM optical networking field—“Adaptive Dynamic Wavelength Routing for WDM Optical Networks” [WOCN, 2006], “A Heuristic Solution to SADM minimization for Static Traffic Grooming in WDM uni-directional Ring Networks” [Photonic Network Communications, 2006], “A Simple Approach for Optimal Allocation of Wavelength Converters in WDM Optical Networks” [WOCN, 2007], “Genetic Evolutionary Approach for Static Traffic Grooming to SONET over WDM Optical Networks” [Computer Communication, Elsevier, 2007], and “Simulation-Based SONET ADM Optimization Approach for Dynamic Traffic Grooming in WDM Optical Networks” [Photonic Network Communications, 2008].

Mrinal Kanti Naskar received his B. Tech. (Hons) and M. Tech from E&ECE Department, IIT Kharagpur, India in 1987 and 1989, respectively and Ph.D. from Jadavpur University, India in 2006. He served as a faculty member in NIT, Jamshedpur and NIT, Durgapur during 1991–1996 and 1996– 1999, respectively. Currently, he is with the Department of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India where he is in charge of the Advanced Digital and Embedded Systems Lab. His research interests include ad-hoc networks, wireless sensor networks, optical networks, and embedded systems. He is an author/co-author of the several published/accepted articles in WDM optical networking field that include “Adaptive Dynamic Wavelength Routing for WDM Optical Networks” [WOCN, 2006], “A Heuristic Solution to SADM minimization for Static Traffic Grooming in WDM uni-directional Ring Networks” [Photonic Network Communications, 2006], “Genetic Evolutionary Approach for Static Traffic Grooming to SONET over WDM Optical Networks” [Computer Communication, Elsevier, 2007], and “Genetic Evolutionary Algorithm for Optimal Allocation of Wavelength Converters in WDM Optical Networks” [Photonic Network Communications, 2008].

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