FINDING SECURE KEYS FOR RSA ALGORITHM THROUGH FACTORIZATION Roksana Akter* Mohammad Shaiduzzaman** Md. Enamul Karim ***

Abstract Cryptography has grown substantially in importance in recent years, as computer networks have made confidential documents more vulnerable to prying eyes. Cryptography is a way to increase security by making messages difficult to read if they fall into the wrong hands. RSA, the most widely used public key encryption algorithm, is always an interesting field to work on for security practitioners – mainly for finding out its all kind of ‘hard to find’ security breaches. The prime rationale of this work is to point to a RSA security breach – proving that certain keys are easy to break, hence unsafe for using in the RSA cryptosystem. Here a new scheme of factorization – factorization using bit position and backtracking is used to find out the secure RSA keys which are not approaching attack from the remaining factorization algorithms. The overall outcome of this scheme is to make RSA algorithm more secure by giving an implication that these certain key patterns should not be used in RSA encryption.

Keywords Factorization, DES, RSA, bit position, cross addition.

1. Introduction Cryptography is the science to disguise information so that only the intended recipients can obtain knowledge of its content. Although the discipline of cryptography is at least two thousand years old, its algorithmic and mathematical foundations have recently solidified to the point where there can now be talk of *MSc Student, Dept of Computer Science & Engineering,Dhaka University, [email protected] **MSc Student, Dept of Computer Science & Engineering,Dhaka University, [email protected] ***Assistant Professor, Dept of Computer Science & Engineering, Dhaka University

probably secure cryptosystems. Cryptanalysis deals with the breaking of a cipher to recover information. The messages to be encrypted, known as the plaintext, are transformed by a function that is parameterized by a key. The output of the encryption process is known as the cipher text. The art of breaking cipher is called cryptanalysis. The art of devising ciphers (cryptography) and breaking them (cryptanalysis) is collectively known as cryptology. It will often be useful to have a notation for relating plaintext, cipher text, and keys. The encryption of the plaintext P using key K gives the cipher text C: C=Ek (P) Similarly, decryption of C to get the plaintext again: P=Dk(C) It then follows that, Dk (Ek (P)) = P There are a lot of secret key algorithms. The most commonly used three algorithms are Caesar shifts, DES and RSA. Security of RSA encryption scheme solely depends on how hard it is to factor big numbers. Almost every method involving factorization requires centuries of computation time to factor few hundred digit numbers. Factoring large integers has redrawn the attention of researchers mainly after the RSA encryption technique has been proposed. Almost every method involving factorization requires expensive mod or division operations and they deal with the decimal representation of the number. A new factoring scheme is presented in this paper which deals with the binary positions of a given number. This work is an evaluation of some unsafe keys in RSA cryptosystem implementation. If the number of non-zero bits present in a factor is very small (or very large), it can find that factor with ease no matter how large the factor is. The number is factorized by distributing it to two products and checking the validity of distribution by a simple cross addition operation. If any distribution fails then it backs to the previous stage by backtracking method using recursion. The factorization algorithm used for this purpose is implemented in two distinct ways to measure the relative performance. This scheme is based on the study of the factoring scheme presented in [1].

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents an overview of the Secret key algorithms and a brief description on RSA algorithm and section 3 reviews the key features of the different factorization techniques. A new factoring scheme – factorization by bit position is described in section 4, followed by discussion and conclusion in section 5.

2. Overview Algorithms

of

the

Secret

Key

There are a lot of secret key algorithms. The most commonly used three algorithms are Caesar shifts, DES and RSA. Caesar shifts: The oldest ciphers involve mapping each character of the alphabet to a different letter. The weakest such ciphers rotate the alphabet by some fixed number of characters (often 13), and thus have only 26 possible keys. Better is to use an arbitrary permutation of the letters, so there are 26 possible keys. Even so, such systems can be easily attacked by counting the frequency of each symbol and exploiting the fact that `e' occurs more often than `z'. While there are variants that will make this more difficult to break, none will be as secure as DES or RSA. Data Encryption Standard (DES): This algorithm is based on repeatedly shuffling the bits of your text as governed by the key. The standard key length for DES (56 bits) is now considered too short for applications requiring the highest level of security. However, a simple variant called triple DES permits an effective key length of 112 bits by using three rounds of DES with two 56-bit keys. In particular, first encrypt with key1, then decrypt with key2, before finally encrypting with key1. There is a mathematical reason for using three rounds instead of two, and the encrypt-decryptencrypt pattern is used so that the scheme is equivalent to single DES when key1 = key2. Rivest-Shamir-Adelman (RSA): RSA scheme is a “Public key cryptography,” developed by Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adelman in April 1977 and is named after their names. The security of the RSA cryptosystem depends on the difficulty of factoring large integers. The longer the key,

the higher the work factor the cryptanalyst has to deal with. The work factor for breaking the system by exhaustive search of the key space is exponential in the key length. Secrecy comes from having a strong (but public) algorithm and a long key. Three main steps of the RSA Algorithm are [2]: Key generation: The prime numbers (p) and (q) are chosen and multiplied together to form (n), an encryption exponent (e) is chosen, and the decryption exponent (d) is calculated using the following rules: • Compute z by the equation, z = (p-1) (q-1). • Select a small odd integer d that is relatively prime to z. • Compute e by the equation, e × d = 1 mod z Publish the pair (e, n) as the RSA public key and keep secret the pair (d, n) as private key. Encryption: The message (M) is raised to the power (e), and then reduced modulo (n). So, the encrypted message C = Me mod n. Decryption: The cipher text (C) is raised to the power (d), and then reduced modulo (n) and the decrypted message (original message) is found by M = Cd mod n.

3. Previous Works on Factorization The ancient Greeks already realized that every integer can be written uniquely as a product of ‘indivisibles larger than 1’, that is, prime numbers. Finding this representation for a given number turns out to be easy for small numbers, but hard and tedious for large numbers. The security of the RSA cryptosystem relies on the difficulty of factoring, and has greatly enlarged the need to know the state-of-the-art of factoring at any time. Among the modern factorization methods the famous ones are Pollard’s (p+1) method [3], Shanks’ Square Forms Factorization [4], Morrison and Brillhart’s Continued Fraction Method [5], Lenstra’s Elliptic Curve Method [6], Pollard’s Number field sieve [7] and Montegomery’s Multiple Polynomial Quadratic Sieve Method[8]. Pollard’s Method: In Pollard’s method the idea employed is that if p-1|Q then p|aQ-1, if GCD (a, p)=1. First it may seem impractical but Pollard employed a technique that if p-1, for one of the factors p of N, happens to have

a factorization containing only small prime factors, then if we compute GCD (aQ-1, N) on these comparatively rare occasions, i.e., for those integers Q which have many prime factors, we might be able to determine p-1 (or a multiple thereof) rather soon, and thus find a relatively large factor p of N with a limited amount of work. Shanks’ Square Forms Factorization: In 1980 the researchers managed to discover the 16-digit factor of eighth Fermat number employing a couple of computer hour. Shanks’ “square forms factorization” systematically applies the theory of binary quadratic forms (expressions of the form Ax2+Bxy+Cy2) to find factorization of integers.

NFS in 1990 to factor the ninth Fermat number. The job was distributed among 700 workstations around the world, running during the nighttime and it took a four-month labor. Montegomery’s Multiple Polynomial Quadratic Sieve Method: This sieving method employs quadratic residues mod N. A version of MPQS was used by Arjen Lenstra and Derek Atkins to factor the so called RSA-129, a number that had been given in 1977 by the inventors of RSA encryption scheme as a challenge to computer scientists. The sieving was carried out in 8 months by about 600 volunteers, consuming estimated 5000 MIPS years.

4. Factorization by Bit Position Morrison and Brillhart’s Continued Fraction Method: It employs the idea of finding a nontrivial solution to the congruence x2≡y2 mod N and then computing a factor p of N by means of Euclid’s algorithm applied to (x+y, N). In the years 1980-82, Thorkil Naur, worked with CFRAC and reported that computing time ranged from less than an hour for 35 digit number to about 24 hours for 45 digit numbers. The most difficult number reported was a 56-digit number, which took 35x24 hours to be factorized. Lenstra’s Elliptic Curve Method: This method makes use of a group of rational points on an elliptic curve. In 1991 it was reported that ECM should require an effort of 10 hours to find 20-25 digit factors and a considerable effort to find 30-35 digit factors. It is also reported that years of combined effort of many researchers had resulted in hundreds and thousands of trials with ECM and they were able to find two 38 digit, one 37 digit and one 36 digit factors. Pollard’s Number Field Sieve: The basic principle of NFS is the same as for CRAFC, namely to find two congruent squares mod N. The difference is that the squares are formed not only from combining small rational numbers mod N, but also by combining small integer’s mod N in some cleverly chosen algebraic number field, the choice of which depends upon the number N to be factored. A.K.Lenstra, H.W.Lenstra, Jr., M.S. Manasse and J.M. Pollard have used

4.1 Overview The scheme use bit position to express binary numbers. Then the number is factorized by distributing it to two products and checking the validity of distribution by a simple cross addition operation. If any distribution fails then it backs to the previous stage by backtracking method using recursion. So this factorization scheme’s main points are• It uses bit position to express binary numbers thus it can handle considerably large numbers. • It avoids mod or division calculation and uses only addition and the operation of incrementing, so less costly. • It uses recursive backtracking to find the correct prime products. In this factoring method if the summing up action is barely needed or not needed then the distribution is very easy and the factorization of that number is gained with less effort. So if this pattern-type number is used in RSA implementation then the unsafe key can cause to insecurity. As for example, the prime products of 187 (10001111) are 11 (1011) and 23 (10111). If we express 187, 11 and 23 using bit position then respectively they are (0, 1,3,4,5,7), (0,1,3) and (0,1,2,4). The cross addition result of 11 (0,1,3) and 23 (0,1,2,4) are (0,1,3,4,5,7) ≡(0,1,3,4,5,7). From this example it is seen that the result of cross addition does not need any summing up

action. So using the new factoring scheme the factorization of 187 (0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7) can be easily obtained. 4.2 Preamble of the Method Number Representation: A binary number N, where N=20+2p+2q+…… .+2L. Then N is represented by an array as, N [L+1] = { e0,ep,eq, ….. eL}, where ei stands for 2i [9]. If 101001 is a binary number then its set bit positions are (positions that contain 1’s) 0th, 3rd and 5th position. Then 101001 can be expressed with its set bit position, i.e. (0, 3, 5).

N= e0+ e0 × N ′ 1+ e0 × N ′ 2+ N ′ 1 × N ′ 2 = e0 + N′ 1 + N′ 2 + N′ 1× N′ 2 This relationship suggests that, if an element e in N to belong to N ′ 1 (or to N ′ 2 ), then element e × N ′ 2 (e × N ′ 1) must be present in N. So it goes over the following bounding condition [10]: If an element e is assumed to be in N1 (in



N2), e × N 2 and e × em (e × N 1″ and e × en)



must be present in N. Here N 2 ( N 1″ ) are the set of elements, already assigned to be in N2 (N1). 4.3 Algorithmic Development

Cross Addition: If every bit position of a number is added to every bit position of another number then this system is called cross addition. ei x ej = 2i x 2j = 2i+j = ei+j. If we take 111(0, 1, 2) and 101(0, 2) then the resulting cross addition is (0+0, 0+1, 0+2, 2+0, 2+1, 2+2) ≡ (0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4) Summing up: In the result of cross addition, if there exist one or more pairs of same element then the element is incremented by one, which is entered into the result as a new element and the previous pair is eliminated. Same process applied to as many as pairs found. ei + ei = 2i + 2i = 2i+1 = ei+1. From the previous reference, the sorted cross addition result of 111 and 101 is (0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4). Then if we apply summing up the required steps are (0, 1, 3, 3, 4) ≡ (0, 1, 4, 4) ≡ (0, 1, 5) Largest Elements of Factors: In [1] is shown that eL = (m+n+1) or (m+n), where eL is the largest element (non-zero position) in the given number to be factored and m and n are the largest elements of the factors respectively. Let e′ L be the second largest element in N. If e′ L ≤ .5eL, then no other elements along with e′ L can form eL. So, in that case only eL = (m+n+1) is valid. Bounding Condition: Let N = N1 x N2 = (e0+ N ′ 1)x(e0+ N ′ 2), where N ′ 1 and N ′ 2 represents N1 and N2 respectively, except for e0 elements. Now,

4.3.1 Without Bounding Condition •







The input is converted into binary number (if it is not in binary). Then N is filled exactly with the bitposition of the binary number. As an example, if the input is 35 (10011), the 0th, 1stand 5th element of N array is filled up with one. An input of even number is considered as an invalid input. Now the task is to distribute the entries of N one after one into P and Q and less them from N. Then check, if the distribution is valid by cross addition. As the input and resulting numbers are odd numbers, so 1 is placed at the 0th element of P, Q and 0 is placed same to N. If in the examining element there found even number entry (including zero), then there are two possibilities- both P and Q have the bit or none of them. In case of odd number entry there are three possibilities- the bit may goes to P or Q or none. Whenever a bit in P or Q is set then instantly cross add is done between their elements and check if the result of cross addition is found in N. If not then it would be obtained by breaking the next set bit. This operation is somewhat like reverse summing up. The next set bit is found in 5th element. So its breaking phases to 2nd position are (0, 1, 5) ≡ (0, 1, 4, 4) ≡ (0, 1, 3, 3, 4).

00

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5

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0

0

0

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1

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Figure 1: The condition of N before and after breaking the 5th bit •

These operations are done by a recursive function. There are some conditions by which the function takes decision to back to previous stage by recursion. For example the reverse summing up action is not allowed to the position, one less than the rightmost position. In the same way a bit from that position can be reduced if and only if in that time only one bit exists in N. Also if any cross addition result crosses the rightmost bit position in N, then it is obvious that the cross addition fails. After all possible matches if two product P & Q is not found then the program terminates.

4.3.2 With Bounding Condition •





The main engine of this program is same to the previous one. By observation it is seen that if the MSB position of P, Q and N are PL, QL and NL, then one of the following equations must be true, PL + QL = NL PL + QL = NL – 1 In this program at first various combinations of PL and QL are taken by looping and then the previous operations are performed. So at the beginning bits are set in PL and QL, and necessary bits are subtracted from the array N. As the cross addition of PL and QL is included every time so whenever the turn of PL and QL come then only the cross addition with the opposite bit is included. If we let QL/PL then after crossing the PL position no bit can be



set in array P. If the considering stage or bit position exceeds QL and there are still ones in the array N, then it is obvious that the combination fails. In array N in the same index of PL or QL, if there found even or odd number entry then it should be treated in an opposite manner than the normal. Because, from that index of N, already one or two bits are subtracted for PL and QL . When the stage came to PL or QL then it is not needed to less any bit from N for PL or QL, because at the beginning bits are less from N for them.

5. Discussion and Conclusion The hardness of integer factorization is a central cryptographic assumption and forms the basis of several widely deployed cryptosystems. This proposed schemefactorization by bit position demonstrate that binary representation of primes, used in RSA algorithm should be populated with 1 approximately by 50% in order to form strong RSA keys. Let, N=C × D and largest bit position of N, C, D are L, m, n respectively. This scheme for a value of i, checks for 2* m=1to L/ 2 mPi, where i ≤ m+1



permutations of C. So, for small values of i’s, factors can easily be computed if there exist any. The complexity of this algorithm grows as the number of i, i.e. non-zero bits in C grows and approximates to C/2. After C/2 the complexity again falls. So, Ns with factors having very small (or large) number of nonzero bits can be factored by this algorithm with ease, no matter how large the factors are. For example, 8737*2812+1 is a prime number (primality test is much easier then finding factors) of length 826-bit containing only 5 non-zero bits. If an RSA key is composed of this prime, it will be broken approximately within 2* m=1 to 825 mPi | i ≤ 5



trials by the stated algorithm (assuming the key to be approximately square of the mentioned prime), though the size seems to be unbreakable in centuries by existing methods (e.g., division method will require approximately 2143 trials).

Only some factoring schemes work comprehensively for all numbers and few perform better for some patterns of numbers. If a pattern of number is easily recognizable by a known scheme, then it is recommended not to use that pattern. However, no recommendation is available regarding the number of non-zero bits available in the factors. This study strongly recommend, on

basis of the observation stated above, two prime numbers chosen for RSA scheme should contain approximately m/2 and n/2 non-zero bits respectively. Acknowledgement This work was introduced to us by M Enamul Karim as a part of his insightful research on backtracking approach to factorization. We are also thankful to Naser Mahmood Khan, Monirul Islam Sharif, Md. Abdul Mottalib for their suggestion and inspiration in improving our concept in this topic. Special thanks to M. Lutfar Rahman for his valuable comments and wise suggestions.

References [1] Karim M.E. and Hasan S. “A Backtracking Approach to factorization”, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Computer and Information Technology, Sylhet, 1999. [2] Flannery S., “Cryptography: An investigation of a new algorithm vs. the RSA”, collected from http:\\ cryptome.org. [3] J.M. Pollard, “A Monte Carlo Method for Factorization”, Nordisk Tedskrift for informationsbehandling (BIT) 15, 1975. [4] Daniel Shanks, Class Number, “A Theory of Factorization and Genera”, amer. Math. Soc. Proc. Symposia in Pure Math. 20, 1971. [5] Michael A. Morisson and John brillhart, “A Method of Factoring and factorization of F7”, Math. Comp. 29, 1975. [6] H.W. Lenstra, Jr., “Factoring Integers with Elliptic Curves”, Ann. Of Math. 126,1987. [7] J.M. Pollard, “Factoring with Cubic Integers”, in A.K. Lenstra and H.W. Lenstra, The Development of Number Field Sieve, Lecture Notes on Mathematics 1554, Springer- Verlag, NY, 1993. [8] R.D. Silverman, “The Multiple Polynomial Quadratic Sieve”, Math comp. 48, 1987. [9] Neal Koblitz , “A course in number theory and Cryptography”, Second Edition, Springer, 1994. [10] Md. Enamul Karim, Naser Mahmood Khan and Monirul Islam Sharif, Md. Abdul Mottalib “Another tip for secure RSA”, proceedings of ICCIT 2001.

FINDING SECURE KEYS FOR RSA ALGORITHM ...

FINDING SECURE KEYS FOR RSA. ALGORITHM THROUGH. FACTORIZATION. Roksana Akter* Mohammad Shaiduzzaman**. Md. Enamul Karim ***. Abstract.

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