Efficient Label Propagation for Interactive Image Segmentation Fei Wang Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

Xin Wang Aplus Company, Beijing, China

Tao Li School of Computer Science, FIU Miami, FL 33199, U.S.A.

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

Abstract

based algorithms only return the smallest cut separating the seeds (i.e. the labeled pixels), they often produce the small cuts that minimally separate the seeds from the rest pixels when the number seeds is very small, moreover, as the Kway graph cut problem is NP-hard, one often require a use of a heuristic to obtain the final solution. In this paper, we propose a novel interactive image segmentation method called Efficient Label Propagation (ELP), which iteratively propagates the labels of the seeds to the rest unlabeled pixels through the image lattice. Theoretical analysis are presented to guarantee the convergence of the label propagation procedure. Moreover, to increase the efficiency of our approach, we propose a coarse-to-fine scheme to propagate the labels. And the user is allowed to actively adjust the initially labeled seeds according to the segmentation results. We also provide some heuristics that can help the user to achieve satisfactory results with minimum efforts. Finally many experimental results are presented to show the effectiveness of our method. It is worthwhile to highlight the several aspects of our proposed ELP algorithm here:

A novel algorithm for interactive multilabel image/video segmentation is proposed in this paper. Given a small number of pixels with user-defined (or pre-defined) labels, our method can automatically propagate those labels to the remaining unlabeled pixels through an iterative procedure. Theoretical analysis of the convergence property of this algorithm is developed along with the corresponding connections with energy minimization of the Hidden Markov Random Field models. To make the algorithm more efficient, we also derive a multi-level way for propagating the labels. Finally the segmentation results on natural images are presented to show the effectiveness of our method.

1

Introduction

Image segmentation is an integral part of many image processing applications, such as medical images analysis and photo editing. Fully automated segmentation techniques have been constantly improving, however, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are rarely any automated image analysis techniques which can be applied autonomously with satisfactory results in general cases. That is why the semi-automated techniques is becoming more and more popular. A semi-automated segmentation algorithm allows the users to participate in the segmentation procedure and give some guidance for the definition of the desired contents to be extracted, so we usually call it interactive segmentation. According to [4], a practical interactive segmentation algorithm must provide four qualities: (1) Fast computation; (2) Fast editing; (3) An ability to produce arbitrary segmentation with enough interactions; (4) Intuitive segmentations. In the last decades, many powerful techniques for interactive image segmentation have been proposed, such as active contour / level set based methods [6][12] and graph cut based methods [1][8][10]. However, despite their success in many situations, there are still a few concerns associated with these algorithms, e.g. it is usually hard to implement the active contour/level set based methods, since they need the user to specify several free parameters; the graph cut

1. Fast computation. Although our algorithm is very similar to random walker in spirit, as we will show later, it is much faster than the random walker method. 2. Fast editing. Due to its iterative nature, our algorithm can perform fast editing by using the previous solution as the initialization of the next propagation. 3. Arbitrary/intuitive segmentation with minimum human efforts. The experiments in this paper show that our algorithm can produce arbitrary/intuitive segmentation through minimum human efforts, which is guaranteed by the active user feedback scheme. So we can see that our algorithm has covered all the qualities that a practical interactive image segmentation algorithm should provide. One issue should be addressed here is that independent of this work, Zhu et al. [15] also proposed a label propagation approach for semi-supervised 1

be the intensity (for gray image) or RGB color (for color image). L = {+1, −1} is the label set1 . yi ∈ L is the label of xi , and Ni is the spatial neighborhood of xi (for computational efficiency, we just use the four-connected neighborhood for each pixel throughout the paper). Then our strategy for propagating the labels can be formulated as: At every iteration step, only the labels of the unlabeled pixels are updated, and the labels of the labeled pixels will be clamped. For an unlabeled pixel xu , its label at iteration t will be computed by X (1) puv yvt−1 , yut =

Figure 1. The graphical model of an image. learning. However, they need the data graph to be completely connected to guarantee the convergence of their algorithm, which is infeasible for large scale applications like image segmentation, since the storage requirement of it is so high. On the contrary, our ELP can work on sparse data graphs, and we also prove the convergence of our algorithm. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we will introduce the original efficient label propagation algorithm together with the theoretical analysis in more detail. Section 3 will present a coarse-to-fine scheme for accelerating our ELP algorithm. Section 4 will illustrate some experimental results of our algorithm on image/vedio segmentation, followed by the conclusions and discussions in section 4.

2

xv ∈Nu

where puv is portion of label information that xu learns P from xv satisfying 0 6 pij 6 1, p = 1. v uv t T Let yt = (y1t , · · · , ylt , · · · , yN ) , and P ∈ RN ×N with its (i, j)-th entry Pij = pij 2 . Since in our label propagation scheme the labels of the labeled pixels will always be clamped, thus we can split y and P as ³ ´T t T t T yt = (yL ) , (yU ) ,

·

PLL PU L

PLU PU U

¸

,

t t where yL and yU correspond to the predicted labels of the labeled and unlabeled pixels. Then we can rewrite Eq.(1) as t t−1 yU = P U L yL + P U U yU ,

Label Propagation on Sparse Grids

(2)

where we have omitted the superscript of yL since it remains the same in all iterations. The final value of each yu can be continuous, and the label of xu can just be determined by the sign of yu . Therefore, the labels of the unlabeled pixels can just be predicted using Eq.(2) iteratively until converged. Now the only problems remained are: (1) how to construct the propagation matrix P; (2) wether the iterative procedure will be converged. In the following two subsections we will investigated these two issues in detail.

In this section we will introduce the basic Label Propagation procedure in detail, together with the theoretical analysis of its convergence property and the relationship with energy minimization of Hidden Markov Random Field.

2.1

P=

Basic Algorithm

The goal of image segmentation is to partition the image pixels into several groups, i.e. assign a proper label to each image pixel. A basic image model is shown in Fig.1, which is composed of two layers. The nodes on different layer correspond to different features of the image pixels. More concretely, the nodes on the top layer (denoted by gray squares) represent the visual features of the pixels, such as intensities and colors; the nodes on the bottom layer (denoted by circles) correspond to the intrinsic features, i.e. labels, of the image pixels. For interactive image segmentation, the user has pre-labeled some of the pixels (denoted by colored squares and circles), and our goal is to label the rest pixels. The basic intuition behind our label propagation method is very simple. First it is an iterative procedure, then at every iteration, each pixel “absorbs” some label information from its spatial neighborhood and updates it own label. And this procedure will be repeated many times until the label of each pixel will not change. Mathematically, let X = {x1 , x2 , · · · , xl , · · · , xN } be the collection of image pixels such that XL = {xi }li=1 is the labeled pixel set and XU = {xu }N u=l+1 is the unlabeled pixel set. xi is the feature vector for pixel i, usually it can

2.2

Constructing the Propagation Matrix

One of the key point for our algorithm to work well is to define a proper propagation matrix P. Intuitively, P should encode the similarities between the pixels, i.e. the more similar xj to xi , the more xi will learn from xj , and the larger Pij will be. To achieve such a goal, we should first define an appropriate similarity function to measure the similarities between pairwise similarities. In image segmentation, such a similarity measure should reflect the change in neighboring pixel intensities or colors. There have been many different similarity functions suggested in [13][14][16]. In this paper, we have preferred (for its simplicity and empirical success) the Gaussian function Wij =

½

¡ ¢ exp −βkxi − xj k2 , 0,

xj ∈ N i , otherwise

(3)

where β > 0 is a free parameter. Eq.(3) has widely been used in many graph-based methods for calculating the edge 1 Let’s consider the two-class problem for the time being, and we will extend our algorithm to multi-class problem in section 2.5. 2 p = 0 for non-neighboring pixel pair (x , x ). ij i j

2

weights [4][7][15]. To make the similarity insensitive to β, W we normalize each Wij as Wij = maxW ij Wij , so that all ij the similarities fall within the range [0,1]. After the construction of W, we can compute the propagation matrix Wij , which satisfies P with its (i, j)-th entry Pij = P W ij j P 0 6 Pij 6 1 and j Pij = 1.

2.3

exist some k such that the k-th row sum of PU U is smaller than 1. Hence according to theorem 3, the spectral radius of PU U is smaller than 1, thus (t)

lim PU U = 0, lim

? yU

2.4

Theorem 2 (H.Minc). Let A be an n × n nonnegative matrix, and λmax is the largest eigenvalue of A, ri 6= 0 (∀i = 1, 2, · · · , n) is the sum of the i-th row of A, then min i

³ Xn

l=1

´ ³ Xn Ail rl /ri 6 r 6 max

l=1

i

Ail rl /ri

´

Theorem 3. Let A be an n × n Markovian matrix, and As is a square matrix of order K derived from A by deleting n − K rows and n − K columns from A, ris is the sum of the i-th row of As , if ∃k, rks 6= 1, λsmax is the maximum eigenvalue of As , then λsmax < 1. Proof. P A is a Markovian matrix means that Aij > 0, j Aij = 1. From theorem 1 we know that the spectral radius of A (i.e. the maximum eigenvalue of A) satisfies ρ(A) 6 1. Since As is a submatrix of A, then according to theorem 2, the spectral radius bound satisfies ´ ³ P n ρ(As ) 6 maxi r1i l=1 Asil rl . Furthermore, for ∀i, l=1

Asil rl /ri

=

(Asi1 r1 + Asi2 r2 + · · · + AsiK rK ) /ri

<

(Asi1 + Asi2 + · · · + AsiK ) /ri = 1.

t→∞

i=1

(i−1)

´

i PU L y L ,

i=1

´

PU L y L

i

¤

Y 1 Y exp(−ψi (yi ))) exp(−ψij (yi , yj )), i i,j Z

where Z is a normalization constant, exp(−ψi (yi )) is the likelihood of site i having a label yi and exp(−ψij (yi , yj )) is the prior for two neighboring sites having labels yi and yj . The terms exp(−ψi (yi )) and exp(−ψij (yi , yj )) are also called the unary and pairwise potentials of the MRF respectively. The goal of MRF learning is to find the configuration y∗ = arg maxy Pr(y) = arg miny E(y), where E(y) =

X

i

ψi (yi ) +

X

i,j

ψij (yi , yj ).

(6)

If we define the likelihood energy as ψi (yi ) =

½

∞, 0,

yi 6= li , xi ∈ XL , otherwise

(7)

where li is the predefined label of the labeled pixel xi , and XL is the labeled pixel set. The prior energy is usually take a form that measures the smoothness of thePlabel over the whole image, for example, ψij (yi , yj ) = i,j Wij (yi − yj )2 , where Wij is the similarity computed from Eq.(3). If we relax the constraint that yi ∈ {−1, +1} and allow it to take continuous values, then the minimization of Eq.(6) is equivalent to solving the following optimization problem

Proof. Using Eq.(2), we can easily derive that PU U

t→∞

(I − PU U )−1 PU L yL

(i−1)

PU U

Relationship with Energy Minimization of Markov Random Field Models

Pr(y) =

where the inequality is due to 0 <³ri 6 1 and ∃ k,´ rk 6= 1. Pn Therfore λsmax = ρ(As ) 6 maxi r1i l=1 Asil rl < 1. ¤ Now let’s return to the basic label propagation procedure. Based on theorem 3, we can prove the following theorem. Theorem 4. When t → ∞, the label vector sequence {yut } resulted from Eq.(2) will converge to the unique fixed point yU = (I − PU U )−1 PU L yL . h ³ Xt (t) 0 ? yU = lim PU U yU +

= (I − PU U )−1

As noted by [2], many vision problems can be naturally formulated in terms of energy minimization on an Markov Random Field (MRF). An MRF is described by a set of N sites along with the symmetric neighborhood N on them. On each site there is a random variable Yi which can take values from a finite set. For the image segmentation task, the sites correspond to image lattice, and the random variables are the labels of each pixel. Let Y = {Yi }N i=1 be the collection of the label variables, then a joint event {Y1 = y1 , · · · , YN = yN }, abbreviated Y = y, is a realization of Y where y = (y1 , · · · , yN ) is called a configuration of Y. Associated with each configuration y is an posterior probability of the MRF Pr(y). By to the Hammersley-Clifford theorem [11],

Note that theorem 2 provides us an improved spectral radius bound compared to theorem 1. Based on theorem 2, we can derive the following theorem.

Xn

(i−1)

PU U

Theorem 4 tells us that the hard propagation procedure will finally converge to a fixed point, which gives us a theoretical guarantee of the feasibility of the algorithm. Fig.2 gives us an illustration on how the algorithm works.

(4)

i

i=1

³ Xt h (t) 0 lim PU U yU +

= =

In this subsection we will analyze the convergence property of the hard propagation procedure using Eq.(2) when t → ∞. First let’s introduce two preliminary theorems [9]. Theorem 1 (Frobenius). Let A be an n × n nonnegative matrix, and λmax is the largest eigenvalue of A, ri (i = 1, 2, · · · , n) is the sum of the i-th row of A, then i

Xt

Therefore

Convergence Analysis

min ri 6 r 6 max ri

t→∞

t→∞

(5)

(t)

where the superscripts in brackets, e.g. PU U represents 0 the t-th power of PU U , and yU is the initial of yU . Since PU U is a submatrix of P by deleting the rows and columns corresponding to the labeled points, generally there must

min y

3

X

i,j

Wij (yi − yj )2 , s.t. yi = li (1 6 i 6 l).

Figure 2. An illustration of the label propagation procedure. The leftmost column corresponds to the original figures, with the red line representing the foreground seeds and the blue line representing the background seeds. The figures from the second column on the left to the rightmost column are the segmentation results when the iteration step t = 5, 10, 20, 50, 100. ? = The solution of the above problem is just[17]3 , yU −1 (I − PU U ) PU L yL , which is the same as Eq.(6). Therefore, our method can also be derived from the framework of energy minimization of MRF with some relaxations.

2.5

Extension to Multilabel Segmentation

It is easy to extend the hard label propagation procedure to multilabel segmentation problems. Suppose there are c classes and the label set becomes L = {1, 2, · · · , c}. Let M be a set of n × c matrices with non-negative real-value ¤T £ ∈ M corentries. Any matrix F = FT1 , FT2 , · · · , FTn responds to a specific classification on X which labels xi as yi = argmaxj6c Fij . Thus F can also be viewed as a function which assign labels for each data point. Initially, let F0ij = 1 if xi is labeled as j, and F0ij = 0 otherwise, and for unlabeled points, F0uj = 0 (1 6 j 6 c). If we split F as F = [FTL , FTU ]T , then the labels of the unlabeled data can be predicted iteratively by FtU = PU L FL + PU U Ft−1 U .

Figure 3. Multilabel image segmentation. Eq.(1) the labels of the nodes in A only depends on the labels of the nodes in B and vice versa. In particular, if we know the labels of the nodes in A at iteration t, we can compute the labels of the nodes in B at iteration t + 1. At this point we can compute the labels of the nodes in A at iteration t + 2. Thus the labels of the nodes in A at iteration t + 2 can be computed without ever computing the labels of those nodes at iteration t + 1. This motivates the following modification of the standard label propagation algorithm for bipartite graphs.

(8)

Fig.3 shows us two examples using Eq.(8) for multilabel image segmentation, where the two figures the left column are the original images with seeds, and the figures in the right column are the results after 100 iterations.

3

Label Propagation on a Grid Graph

Since in this paper we only consider for the label propagation on a grid graph, i.e. each node (pixel) only connects with its four-connected neighbors, if we color the grid graph in a checkerboard pattern that every edge connects nodes of different colors, then we can find that the grid graph is bipartite. In this section we will describe how our label propagation scheme can be performed more efficiently for a bipartite graph while getting essentially the same results as the standard algorithm. The main observation here is that for a bipartite graph with nodes V = A ∪ B, when computing the labels using

In the new scheme the labels of the pixels are initialized in the standard way, but we alternate between updating the labels of the pixels in A and the labels of the pixels in B. For concreteness let y¯pt be the label of node p at iteration t under this new label propagation scheme. When t is odd we update the labels of the nodes in A and keep the old values for the labels of the nodes in B. When t is even we update the labels of the pixels in B but not those in A. So we only update half the labels in each iteration. Moreover we can store new labels in the same memory space where the old labels were. This is because in each iteration the labels being updated do not depend on each other. Therefore by induction we can show that for all t > 0, if t is odd (or even)

3 Note here that since the labels of the labeled pixels have already been constrained, we only need to derive the labels of the unlabeled pixels y U .

4

(a) Level 0

G 1 , G 2 , · · · , G M , such that in the α-th level, the blocks of 2α × 2α pixels are grouped together to formulate a set of supernodes, and these supernodes are connected in a grid structure (Fig.4 gives us an intuitive illustration). The similarities between pairwise supernodes in G α are taken to be the sum of similarities between theP nodes in G α−1 comprisα 0 ing the supernodes, i.e. Wij = u∈i,v∈j Wuv , where i α and j are the supernodes of G containing pixels u, v ∈ G 0 respectively. Then the transition probability on G α can be P α α α . computed as Pij = Wij / j Wij Another requirement to perform our multilevel method is α defining a proper YL for each G α . This can further be decomposed to two subproblems: (1) determining which supernodes should be labeled; (2) determining the labels of the labeled supernodes. Intuitively, the graph of the α-th level should represent the labelings where all pixels in the same supernode are assigned the same label. However, this is not always true. For example, if the seed pixels provided by the user are close to the boundary of the two classes, then it is possible that a supernode in a coarsened graph contains the pixels belonging to each class. Therefore, we propose to treat a supernode in G α to be labeled if it contains labeled pixels, and compute the label of the i-th supernode in G α by

(b) Level 1

Figure 4. Illustration of the graphs of two levels of our multilevel method. Each node in the graph of level α corresponds to an 2 × 2 block in the graph of level α − 1. then y¯pt =

½

ypt ypt−1

if p ∈ A (if p ∈ B) otherwise

(9)

That is, the labels y¯pt updated under the new scheme are nearly the same as the ypt updated under the standard scheme. Note that when label propagation converges, this alternative label propagation scheme converges to the same fixed point. This is because after convergence ypt−1 = ypt .

4

α (YL )ic

Multi-Level Label Propagation

  1, #(icL )/#(iL ), =  0,

∀u ∈ i, lu = c ∃u, v ∈ i, lu = c, lv 6= c otherwise

where u and v are the labeled pixels whose label are denoted by lu and lv , #(iL ) represents the number of labeled pixels contained in i, and #(icL ) denotes the number of labeled pixels contained in i whose labels are c. Having deα termined YL and Pα , we can propagate the labels on the graphs of each level using Eq.(8) as

One problem with our label propagation scheme is that the labels of the unlabeled pixels are updated locally and in parallel, which implies that it will take many iterations to propagate the labels for a long distance over the graph. In this section we will describe a multilevel technique to circumvent this problem. The basic idea of our multilevel method is to perform it in a coarse-to-fine manner, so that the long range interactions between pairwise pixels can be captured by the short ones in coarse graphs. Inspired by [3], our method use such a hierarchy only to initialize initial label vector of the unlabeled pixels at successively finer levels. More concretely, the standard label propagation algorithm introduced in section 2 aims to find a fixed point (i.e. Eq.(6)) of the label updating rule (i.e. Eq.(2)). We usually initialize the labels of the unlabeled points to be zero (one can also refer to [15] for the same initialization). Then a straightforward idea is to initialize these labels close to the fixed point for accelerating the convergence of our algorithm. This is the reason why the method described here works: we run label propagation at one level of resolution to get an estimation of the labels of the next finer resolution, which can speed up the label propagation procedure to converge to the fixed point. In our multilevel algorithm, the grid graph G 0 corresponding to the original image is repeatedly coarsened to

t α α α α t−1 (Fα . U ) = PU L FL + PU U (FU )

(10)

After having got the labels of the supernodes in G α , we then initialize the labels of the nodes in G α−1 as follows: the labels of the four nodes that form the same supernode are initialized as the same label of that supernode. Then the labels can be propagated in a coarse-to-fine manner. We have found that with this multilevel approach it is enough to run label propagation for a small number of iterations at each level (around five). Note that the total number of nodes in the hierarchy is just 4/3 the number of nodes at the finest level. Thus for a given number of iterations the total number of label updates in the hierarchical method is just 1/3 more than the number of updates in the finest level. Fig.5(a) gives us an example to demonstrate the effectiveness of our method, where we use standard label propagation and the multilevel method for segmenting the pyramid image shown in Fig.6, and a total of three levels is used for the multilevel method. As we stated in section 2.4, the label propagation algorithm can be viewed as to pursue a relaxed solution of minimizing the energy of an MRF. The ordinate of Fig.5 is the energy of such an MRF (computed by Eq.(6)), and the abscissa corresponds to the number of 5

600 500

processing time (sec.)

energy

40

image segmentation are provided to show the effectiveness of our method.

Random Walker Efficient LP

35

400 300 200

30

References

25 20 15 10

100 0 0

45

Standard LP Multilevel LP

[1] Y. Boykov, M. -P. Jolly. Interactive Graph Cuts for Optimal Boundary & Region Segmentation of Objects in N-D Images. Proceedings of ICCV 2001. 2001. 1

5

50

100 150 200 number of iterations

250

300

0

128 192 256 320

(a)

512 size of the image

768

(b)

[2] Y. Boykov, O. Veksler, R. Zabih. Fast Approximate Energy Minimization via Graph Cuts. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. 2001. 3

Figure 5. Computational efficiency of our method.

[3] I. S. Dhillon, Y. Guan, and B. Kulis. A Fast Kernel-based Multilevel Algorithm for Graph Clustering. Proceedings of the Eleventh ACM SIGKDD. 2005. 5 [4] L. Grady. Random Walks for Image Segmentation. IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Vol. 28, No. 11, pp. 1768-1783, Nov., 2006. 1, 3, 6 [5] L. Grady. Multilabel Random Walker Image Segmentation Using Prior Models. Proceedings of IEEE CVPR. 2005. [6] M. Kass, A. Witkin, D. Terzopoulos. Snakes: Active Contour Models. International Journal of Computer Vision, 1987. 1 [7] A. Levin D. Lischinski, Y. Weiss. Colorization Using Optimization. Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH, 2004. 3 [8] Y. Li, J. Sun, C. Tang, H. Shum. Lazy Snapping. Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH, 2004. 1

Figure 6. Examples of segmentations on natrual images.

[9] H. Minc. (1988) Nonnegative Matrices. Wiley, New York. 3

iterations. We can see that the multilevel method computes a low energy solution in just a few iterations per level, while the standard algorithm takes hundreds of iterations.

[10] C. Rother, V. Kolmogorov, A. Blake. “GrabCut” - Interactive Foreground Extraction Using Iterated Graph Cuts. Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH, 2004. 1

5

[11] J. M. Hammersley and P. Clifford. Markov fields on finite graphs and lattices. Unpublished manuscript, 1971. 3

Experiments

In this section we will show a set of experiments to illustrate the effectiveness of our method. For all the experiments here we used the parameter value (β = 900) to determine the edge weights in the lattice graph. In all cases we ran eight label update iterations at each graph level, with a total of three levels. Note that in each iteration we only updated half the labels, using the technique described in section 3. The running times reported were obtained on a 2.2Ghz Pentium 4 computer with a 2G RAM. We also compared the running time of our efficient label propagation algorithm with the standard random walker method [4] on segmenting the images of different sizes. The results are shown in Fig.5(b), from which we can clearly see that our method can achieve satisfactory results in a much shorter time.

[12] J. A. Sethian. Level Set Methods and Fast Marching Methods. Cambridge University Press. 1999. 1

6

[17] X. Zhu, Z. Ghahramani, J. Lafferty. Semi-Supervised Learning Using Gaussian Fields and Harmonic Functions. Proceedings of the 20th ICML. 2003. 4

[13] J. Shi, J. Malik. Normlized Cuts and Image Segmentation. IEEE Transactions on Patern Analysis and Machine Intelligence. 2000. 2 [14] F. Wang, J. Wang, C. Zhang, H. Shen. Semi-Supervised Classification Using Linear Neighborhood Propagation. Proceedings of IEEE CVPR. 2006. 2 [15] X. Zhu, Z. Ghahramani. Learning from Labeled and Unlabeled Data with Label Propagation. Tech report CMU-CALD02-107, 2002 1, 3, 5 [16] X. Zhu, J. Lafferty, Z. Ghahramani. Semi-Supervised Learning: From Gaussian Fields to Gaussian Process. Computer Science Technical Report, Carnegie Mellon University, CMUCS-03-175. 2003. 2

Summary and Conclusions

We have presented an efficient label propagation algorithm for interactive image segmentation in this paper. Our method yields results of comparable accuracy to other algorithms but runs much faster. The experiments on natural 6

Efficient Label Propagation for Interactive Image ...

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trip, these images may belong to 'tiger', 'building', 'moun- tain', etc. It is hard ..... shuttle shuttlecock club bocce ball game lawn summer bocci croquet party grass.

Image Compression with Back-Propagation Neural ...
Dec 17, 2006 - of a straight and unconstrained codebook is a computationally intensive and the complexity grows exponentially with the block. Artificial Neural ...

A USER-FRIENDLY INTERACTIVE IMAGE ...
work we design a new tool that allows users to easily select the desirable mask. The proposed framework ... classes, those algorithms still require the user intervention to entirely mark the area to be repaired. ... objects so as to keep the visual c

Automatic Image Tagging via Category Label and ...
To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to ..... 2Some images are not available due to copyright protection or other reasons. The real number ...

Interactive Image Colorization using Laplacian ...
photo editing and scientific illustration, to modernize old motion pictures and to enhance ... Aiming at making the colorization task simpler and less laborious, several .... Lαβ coloring system by employing basic matrix transformations as outlined