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Efficient Computation of Transfer Function Dominant Poles Using Subspace Acceleration Joost Rommes and Nelson Martins, Fellow, IEEE

Abstract—This paper describes a new algorithm to compute the dominant poles of a high-order scalar transfer function. The algorithm, called the subspace accelerated dominant pole algorithm (SADPA), is more robust than existing methods in finding both real and complex dominant poles and faster because of subspace acceleration. SADPA is able to compute the full set of dominant poles and produce good modal equivalents automatically, without any human interaction. Index Terms—Dominant pole spectrum, large-scale systems, modal equivalents, model reduction, poorly-damped oscillations, power system dynamics, small-signal stability, sparse eigenanalysis, system poles, transfer function.

I. INTRODUCTION

faster, more robust, and more flexible algorithm. To avoid repeated computation of the same dominant poles, a deflation strategy is used. The SADPA directly operates on implicit state–space systems, also known as descriptor systems, which are very sparse in practical power system applications. This paper is organized as follows. Section II summarizes some well-known properties of scalar transfer functions and formulates the problem of computing the dominant poles of a scalar transfer function. Section III discusses the DPSE algorithm [7]. In Section IV, the new variant SADPA is described. Extensive numerical results are presented in Section V. Section VI concludes this paper. II. TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND DOMINANT POLES

R

ECENT work on power system stability, controller design, and electromagnetic transients has used several advanced model reduction techniques [1]–[5] that produce good results but impose high computational costs. Modal model reduction is a cost-effective alternative for large-scale systems, when only a fraction of the system pole spectrum is controllable-observable for the transfer function of interest. The concept of pole dominance, as utilized in this paper, implies high controllability andobservabilityinthechosentransferfunction.Modalreduction producestransfer functionmodalequivalents fromtheknowledge of the dominant poles and their corresponding residues but requires specialized eigensolution methods that are still not capable enough to produce automatically the full set of truly dominant poles [6]–[8] for large system models. A good survey on model reduction methods employing either singular value decompositions or moment matching-based methods is found in [9], [10]. A good introduction on modal model reduction on state–space models can be found in [11], but a review on reduction methods that has applications extended to large, sparse descriptor system models is not known to the authors. In this paper, a new variant of the dominant pole algorithm (DPA) [6] and the dominant pole spectrum eigensolver (DPSE) [7] will be proposed: subspace accelerated DPA (SADPA). Instead of computing the dominant poles of a scalar transfer function simultaneously, the dominant poles and corresponding residues are computed one by one by selecting the most dominant approximation for every iteration. This approach leads to a Manuscript received November 29, 2005; revised January 12, 2006. Paper no. TPWRS-00753-2005. J. Rommes is with Mathematical Institute, Utrecht University, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands (e-mail: [email protected]). N. Martins is with CEPEL, Rio de Janeiro RJ-20001-970, Brazil (e-mail: [email protected]). Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2006.876671

The transfer function of a single-input single-output (SISO) system

where defined as

, and

is

(1) is the identity matrix and . Without loss where of generality, in the following. Let the eigenvalues (poles) of and the corresponding right , and and left eigenvectors be given by the triplets . let the right and left eigenvectors be scaled so that Note that for . The transfer function can over first-order poles [12] be expressed as a sum of residues

where the residues

A pole

are

that corresponds to a residue with large is called a dominant pole, i.e., a pole that is well observable and controllable in the transfer function. This can also be observed from the corresponding Bode magnitude plot

0885-8950/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE

ROMMES AND MARTINS: EFFICIENT COMPUTATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION DOMINANT POLES USING SUBSPACE ACCELERATION

of , where peaks occur at frequencies close to the imagi. An approximation of nary parts of the dominant poles of that consists of terms with above some value, determines the effective transfer function behavior [13]

The problem of concern can now be formulated as follows: Given a SISO linear, time invariant, dynamical system , compute dominant poles and the correand . sponding right and left eigenvectors

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3) Solve

and

from

4) Solve

and

from

5) Compute the new pole estimate

III. DOMINANT POLE SPECTRUM EIGENSOLVER The DPSE [7] is based on the DPA [6] and refactored bi-iteration (RBI) [14]. A scalar transfer function (1) is equal to its transpose

6) The pole

(2)

for some

has converged if

7) Set where and are the Laplace transforms of . In matrix form, (2) becomes

and

(3)

and are the Laplace transforms of the state where . The idea behind DPA, which is also used vectors for and in DPSE, is that a pole of can be defined as a for which , and hence for and finite . The vectors and in (3) converge to left and right eigenvectors of . The DPA is summarized in algorithm 1. All algorithms are described as directly operating on the state–space model. The practical implementations operate on the sparse descriptor system model, which is the unreduced Jacobian for the power system stability problem, analyzed in the examples of this paper (see Section V). Algorithm 1: The Dominant Pole Algorithm INPUT: System

, initial pole estimate

OUTPUT: Dominant pole eigenvectors

and corresponding right and left and .

1) Set 2) while not converged do

8) end while The DPA can be proven to be a Newton process for finding zeroes of the function [6], [15] and converges asymptotically quadratically. Step 5 is the Newton update [6], [15] and can also be written as the generalized Rayleigh quotient [16] for and

Note that other criteria for convergence can be used [6], [7]. Note also that the complex transpose, denoted by , is used in all algorithms, instead of the transpose . In the DPA, there is one moving shift . The RBI uses multiple moving shifts, and this is the second ingredient for the DPSE. By using multiple moving shifts, more than one dominant pole can be computed. Computation of repeated poles is avoided by using different initial shifts. The DPSE is summarized in algorithm 2. In step 8, the generalized eigenvalues of the pair , i.e., the solutions of the general, can be computed with the ized eigenvalue problem method [17]. If is well conditioned, the problem can be , transformed to the ordinary eigenvalue problem

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which can be solved with the

method [17].

Algorithm 2: The Dominant Pole Spectrum Eigensolver initial pole estimates

INPUT: System

OUTPUT:

dominant pole triplets

In fact, the new algorithm SADPA can be seen as a generalization of the DPA to compute more than one dominant pole. First, subspace acceleration, a well-known technique for iterative methods, will be described. Second, a new selection strategy will be used to select the most dominant pole approximation and corresponding right and left eigenvector approximation for every iteration. Third, deflation will be used to avoid convergence to eigentriplets that are already found. A. Subspace Acceleration

1) Set 2) while not all converged do 3) for

do 4) Solve

from

5) Solve

from

6) endfor 7) Set 8) Compute

and and

9) Compute the new pole estimates

A drawback of the DPSE is that information obtained in the current iteration is discarded at the end of the iteration. The only information that is preserved is contained in the new pole esti. The subspaces and , however, also contain inmates formation about other dominant eigentriplets (i.e., components in the direction of the corresponding eigenvectors), and the idea is now to use this information as well. Reasoning this way leads to a generalization of the DPA. A global overview of the SADPA is shown in algorithm 3. Starting with a single shift , the first iteration is equivalent to the first iteration of the DPA, but instead of discarding the corresponding right and left eigenvector approximations and , they are kept in spaces and . In the next iteration, these spaces are expanded orthogonally, by using modified and Gram–Schmidt (MGS) [17], with the approximations corresponding to the new shift (see Section IV-C). Hence, the spaces grow and will contain better approximations. This idea is known as subspace acceleration. Approximations of the dominant poles are computed like in the DPSE, but the next question is to select the most promising approximation as new shift: unlike the DPSE, only one shift per iteration is used. Algorithm 3: Subspace Accelerated DPA INPUT: System

10) A pole

, initial pole estimate

and the

number of wanted poles

has converged if

OUTPUT: Dominant pole triplets 1) denotes an empty matrix of size for some 11) Set

2) while

do

3) Solve

from

4) Solve

from

12) end while In a practical implementation, the number of moving shifts is decreased as soon as a pole has converged, while the corresponding right and left eigenvectors are kept in the matrices and . Furthermore, if a complex pole has converged, its complex conjugate is also a pole, and the matrices and can be expanded with the corresponding complex conjugate right and left eigenvectors (this leads to slightly larger interaction matrices and ). IV. A NEW APPROACH: SUBSPACE ACCELERATED DPA In this section, three strategies to improve the DPSE will be discussed and combined to produce the new algorithm SADPA.

5)

Alg. 5

6)

Alg. 5

7) Compute

and

)

ROMMES AND MARTINS: EFFICIENT COMPUTATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION DOMINANT POLES USING SUBSPACE ACCELERATION

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C. Deflation

8) Compute eigentriplets of the pair

9) Compute approximate eigentriplets of

Every iteration a convergence test is done like in DPA and the norm of DPSE: if for the selected eigentriplet is smaller than some tolerance , the residual it is converged. In general, more than one dominant eigentriplet is wanted, and it is desirable to avoid repeated computation of the same eigentriplet. A well-known technique to avoid repeated computation is to use deflation [18]. If already the right and left eigenvectors and are found, then it can be verified that, if the exact vectors are found, the matrix

as

10) 11) 12) 13)

Sort

14) if

Alg. 4 (4)

then

15) Alg. 6 16) 17) Set

has the same eigentriplets as but with the found eigenvalues transformed to zero (see also [19], [20]): let be one of the found right eigenvectors, i.e., . Then it follows from the orthogonality relations (see Section II) that

18) end if 19) Set 20) Set the new pole estimate 21) end while B. Selection Strategy

and hence, . On the other hand, let be a right eigenvector of with eigenvalue . Then

In algorithm 3, one has to choose a strategy to select the new pole estimate . A possible choice is to use the generalized Rayleigh quotient as it is used in DPA and DPSE. Here, however, also another choice is possible, which is closer to the goal of computing the dominant poles. Because in iteration the interaction matrices and are of low order (see step 7 in algorithm 3), it is relatively cheap to compute the full eigendecomposi. This provides approximate eigention of the pencil triplets . The most natural thing to do is to choose the triplet with the most dominant pole approximation: compute the corresponding residues of the pairs and select the pole with the largest (see algorithm 4). The SADPA then continues with the new shift .

and hence, . The result for left eigenvectors follows in a similar way. needs to be orthogonally expanded Using this, the space and similarly, the space needs to be with

Algorithm 5:

Expand

Algorithm 4:

INPUT:

with

Sort

. These projections orthogonally expanded with are implemented using MGS (see algorithm 5).

INPUT: OUTPUT:

OUTPUT:

with the pole with largest residue magnitude and and the corresponding approximate right and left eigenvectors.

2)

1) Compute residues 2) Sort

in decreasing

1)

order

3)

with

and

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Algorithm 6: Deflate INPUT:

OUTPUT:

,

, where

if has zero imaginary part and if has nonzero imaginary part. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) if imag

then

6) Also deflate complex conjugate 7) 8) 9) 10)

approximations computed in the selection procedure (although in exact arithmetic, they are equal). In the deflation phase, it is therefore advised to take the most accurate of both. The SADPA requires only one initial shift, while the DPSE requires initial shifts if dominant poles are wanted. If rather accurate initial estimates are available, one can take advantage of this in SADPA as well by setting the next shift after deflation to a new initial estimate (see step 20 of algorithm 3). need to be solved Every iteration, two systems of size (steps 3 and 4). As is also mentioned in [7], this can be effi-factorization and solving ciently done by computing one the systems by using and , and and , respectively. Because in practice the sparse Jacobian is used, computation of -factorization is inexpensive. the The selection strategy can easily be changed to use another of the several existing indexes of modal dominance [11][21]. Furthermore, the strategy can be restricted to consider only poles in a certain frequency range. Also, instead of providing the number of wanted poles, the procedure can be automated even further by for a cerproviding the desired maximum error tain frequency range: the procedure continues computing new poles until the error bound is reached. Note that such an error bound requires that the transfer function of the complete model can be computed efficiently (which is usually the case for sparse descriptor systems). V. NUMERICAL RESULTS

11) end if 12) 13) for

do

14)

Expand

15)

Expand

16) end for If a complex pole has converged, its complex conjugate is also a pole, and the corresponding complex conjugate right and left eigenvectors can also be deflated. A complex conjugated pair is counted as one pole. The complete deflation procedure is shown in algorithm 6. D. Further Improvements and Remarks It may happen that the spaces and become large, especially if a large number of dominant poles is wanted. A common way to deal with this is to do an implicit restart [18]: if the spaces and reach a certain maximum dimension , by keeping the they are reduced to a dimension most dominant approximate eigentriplets; the process is restarted with the reduced and . This procedure is repeated until all poles are found. Furthermore, as more eigentriplets have converged, approximations of new eigentriplets may become poorer due to rounding errors in the orthogonalization phase and the already converged eigentriplets. It is therefore advised to take a small . Besides that, as the shift converges to tolerance a dominant pole, the right and left eigenvectors computed in steps 2 and 3 of algorithm 3 are usually more accurate than the

The algorithm was tested on a number of systems, for a number of different input and output vectors and . Here the results for the Brazilian Interconnected Power System (BIPS) are shown (see the Appendix for the application of SADPA to a small test system). The system data correspond to a year 1999 planning model, having 2400 buses, 3400 lines, a large HVDC link, and 123 power plants with detailed dynamic representation, 46 of which have power system stabilizers. The BIPS model is linearized about an operating point having a total load of 46 000 MW, with the North–Northeast generators exporting 1000 MW to the South–Southeast region, through the planned 500 kV, series compensated North–South intertie. The power oscillation damping (POD) controllers of the two thyristor controlled series compensators (TCSC) are disabled, causing the low-frequency North–South mode to become poorly damped . In the experiments, the convergence tolerance used was . The spaces and were limited to dimension (i.e., a restart, with , every iterations). The results are compared with the results of DPSE on quality of the modal equivalents, computed poles, CPU time, and number of factorizations. The DPSE uses deflation of complex conjugate pairs. All experiments are carried out in Matlab 6.5 [22] on an Intel Centrino Pentium 1.5 GHz with 512 MB RAM. The state–space realization of the BIPS model has 1664 states. The sparse, unreduced Jacobian has dimension 13 251. Like the experiments in [6], [7], the practical implementation operates on the sparse unreduced Jacobian of the system, instead of on the dense state matrix . To demonstrate the performance of SADPA, it is applied to six transfer functions of BIPS to compute a number (60,

ROMMES AND MARTINS: EFFICIENT COMPUTATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION DOMINANT POLES USING SUBSPACE ACCELERATION

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TABLE I RESULTS OF SADPA FOR SIX TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF THE BIPS. SHIFT s = 1j

Fig. 2. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model, and error for transfer =V ref of BIPS (95 states in the modal equivalent, 1664 in function W the complete model).

Fig. 1. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model, and error for transfer =V ref of BIPS (102 states in the modal equivalent, 1664 function W in the complete model).

30, or 80) of dominant poles (complex conjugate pairs are counted as one pole). The first four transfer functions relate of major synchronous the rotor shaft speed deviations generators to disturbances applied to the voltage references of their corresponding excitation control systems. Note that , is used: after the first pole has only a single shift, converged, the next most dominant approximate pole is used as new shift. The results are in Table I, and the Bode plots of the corresponding modal equivalents, complete models, and errors for the first four transfer functions are in Figs. 1–4. It is clearly observable that the reduced models capture the important dynamics. For completeness, the 15 most dominant poles and , according to the corresponding residues of , are shown in Table II. Note that SADPA index succeeds in finding both real and complex poles. In Table III, the SADPA, the DPSE, and the DPSE with deflation (DPSEd) are compared on computational time: each method was given 100 s to compute dominant poles. The SADPA clearly comes out best. The DPSE has more difficulties to converge as the number of shifts increases: typically, the tolerance is not reached for an increasing number of poles. Besides that, also the computational costs increase rapidly as the number of shifts increases, because the interaction matrices grow. To compute 60 poles with the DPSE, it must be started again with different sets of shifts, which has the risk of computing the same poles again, is time

Fig. 3. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model, and error for transfer =V ref of BIPS (101 states in the modal equivalent, 1664 function W in the complete model).

consuming, and requires human interaction. The SADPA, however, finds 60 dominant poles, starting with just one single shift, without any human interaction during the process. Because of the selection strategy, truly dominant poles are computed; the deflation strategy prevents repeated computation of the same pole. Furthermore, SADPA succeeds in computing real poles, while DPSE has many difficulties in computing real poles: real shifts are needed for DPSE, while SADPA finds the real poles automatically. SADPA is not sensitive to the initial shift: repeated experiments with other shifts give the same results. In the neighborhood of exact (dominant) poles of the transfer function, SADPA has quadratic convergence [7]. , relating the The fifth transfer function of BIPS is active power deviations flowing through the North-end series capacitor of the planned intertie, to disturbances in the reference

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Fig. 4. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model, and error for transfer =V ref of BIPS (104 states in the modal equivalent, 1664 function W in the complete model).

Fig. 5. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model, and error for transfer function P (s)=B (s) of BIPS (41 states in the modal equivalent, 1664 in the complete model).

TABLE II FIFTEEN MOST DOMINANT POLES AND CORRESPONDING RESIDUES =V ref , SORTED IN DECREASING jR j=jRe( )j OF W ORDER (29-STATE MODAL EQUIVALENT)

Fig. 6. Step responses for transfer function P (s)=B (s) of BIPS, complete model, and modal equivalent (41 states in the modal equivalent, 1664 in the complete model, step disturbance of 0:01 p.u.). TABLE III COMPUTATIONAL STATISTICS FOR THE SADPA (s = 1j , THE DPSE, AND THE DPSE WITH DEFLATION (DPSED) (SHIFTS 1j; 1:5j; . . . ; 10:5j ), AFTER 100 S COMPUTATIONAL TIME

value of the TCSC series admittance. This transfer function was used in the basic design of the POD controllers of the two TCSCs, in order to damp the North–South mode [23]–[25]. Modal equivalents of the transfer function for damping the North–South mode, whose state–space realization has a direct , are considered in [23]. transmission term Fig. 5 shows the frequency response of the complete model and the reduced model (41 states) together with the error. ). The Fig. 6 shows the corresponding step response (step North–South mode ( rad/s Hz is well observable in

both responses, and the reduced model nicely captures the system oscillations. The reduced model (30 poles, 56 states) was computed by SADPA in 200 s (341 factorizations). This reduced model was reduced to a 41 state (22 poles) by removing less dominant contributions. A table with the dominant poles and corresponding residues can be found in [23]. , relates the acThe sixth transfer function, tive power deviations of a large hydroelectric plant, located in the Southeast region, to disturbances applied to its speed-governor reference. For this transfer function, it is known from numerical experiments that the DPSE has difficulties in producing a good modal equivalent: several DPSE attempts are needed to obtain an acceptable modal equivalent. The SADPA is able to automatically produce good results for both the frequency and step response, as can be observed from Figs. 7 and 8. The SADPA computed the reduced model (80 poles, 118 states) in , 450 s (533 factorizations) using just a single initial shift

ROMMES AND MARTINS: EFFICIENT COMPUTATION OF TRANSFER FUNCTION DOMINANT POLES USING SUBSPACE ACCELERATION

Fig. 7. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model, and error for transfer s= s of BIPS (118 states in the modal equivalent, function P t 1664 in the complete model).

( ) Pref ( )

Pt ( ) Pref ( ) 0 01

Fig. 8. Step responses for transfer function s= s of BIPS, complete model, and modal equivalent (118 states in the modal equivalent, 1664 in the complete model, step disturbance of : p.u.). TABLE IV

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Fig. 9. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model, and error for transfer of the New England test system (five states in the modal function ! = P equivalent, 66 in the complete model).

1

1

Fig. 10. Bode plot of modal equivalent, complete model and error for transfer function ! = P of the New England test system (11 states in the modal equivalent, 66 in the complete model).

1

1

RESULTS FOR THE SADPA APPLIED TO THE NEW ENGLAND TEST SYSTEM

(s = 1j )

in one single run. For this example, the selection strategy was set to selecting the pole with largest for every iteration. Further reduced system models can be obtained by applying the balanced model reduction algorithm [11] to a state–space realization of the modal equivalent.

VI. CONCLUSION The algorithm described in this paper, SADPA, is a fast method to compute the dominant poles and corresponding eigenvectors of a scalar transfer function. It has several advantages compared to existing methods. First, it is more robust because it uses a natural selection method to converge to both real and complex dominant poles. Second, SADPA needs fewer iterations to converge by using subspace acceleration. Third, it has less risk of missing a dominant pole, and of computing an already found pole, because of deflation techniques. Fourth, SADPA is completely automatic: with a single shift, it is able to compute as many dominant poles as wanted, without intermediate human interaction. The algorithm as presented in this paper should be adequate for computer implementation by an experienced programmer. The results of this paper are related to the analysis and control of

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small signal stability, but the SADPA algorithm is general and could be effectively applied to problems in other engineering fields that allow sparse descriptor system formulations. Currently, a generalization of the algorithm to MIMO systems is being developed [8].

APPENDIX I SMALL TEST SYSTEM For illustrational purposes, the SADPA was applied to a transfer function of the New England test system. This small benchmark system has 66 state variables (for more information, see [6]). The transfer function was being the rotor speed and the applied mechanical power deviations to the synchronous generator at bus 36. The , and no restarts were used. Every tolerance used was iteration, the pole approximation with largest was selected. Table IV shows the found dominant poles and the iteration number in which the pole converged. Bodeplots of two modal equivalents are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The quality of the modal equivalent increases with the number of found poles. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The first author would like to thank G. Sleijpen for pointing to the work of N. Martins. Both authors would like to thank CEPEL and ELETROBRAS for providing the test systems. REFERENCES [1] J. J. Sanchez-Gasca and J. H. Chow, “Power system reduction to simplify the design of damping controllers for interarea oscillations,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 1342–1349, Aug. 1996. [2] B. C. Pal, A. H. Coonick, and B. J. Cory, “Robust damping of inter-area oscillations in power systems with superconducting magnetic energy storage devices,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Gen., Transm., Distrib., vol. 146, no. 6, pp. 633–639, Nov. 1999. [3] D. Chaniotis and M. A. Pai, “Model reduction in power systems using Krylov subspace methods,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 888–894, May 2005. [4] A. Ramirez, A. Semlyen, and R. Iravani, “Order reduction of the dynamic model of a linear weakly periodic system—Part I: General methodology,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 857–865, May 2004. [5] G. Troullinos, J. Dorsey, H. Wong, and J. Myers, “Reducing the order of very large power system models,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 127–133, Feb. 1988. [6] N. Martins, L. T. G. Lima, and H. J. C. P. Pinto, “Computing dominant poles of power system transfer functions,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 162–170, Feb. 1996. [7] N. Martins, “The dominant pole spectrum eigensolver,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 245–254, Feb. 1997. [8] N. Martins and P. E. M. Quintão, “Computing dominant poles of power system multivariable transfer functions,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 152–159, Feb. 2003.

[9] A. C. Antoulas and D. C. Sorensen, “Approximation of large-scale dynamical systems: An overview,” Int. J. Appl. Math. Comput. Sci., vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 1093–1121, 2001. [10] A. C. Antoulas, Approximation of Large-Scale Dynamical Systems. Philadelphia, PA: SIAM, 2005. [11] M. Green and D. J. N. Limebeer, Linear Robust Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995. [12] T. Kailath, Linear Systems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980. [13] J. R. Smith, J. F. Hauer, D. J. Trudnowski, F. Fatehi, and C. S. Woods, “Transfer function identification in power system application,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1282–1290, Aug. 1993. [14] J. M. Campagnolo, N. Martins, and D. M. Falcão, “Refactored bi-iteration: A high performance eigensolution method for large power systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 1228–1235, Aug. 1996. [15] L. H. Bezerra, “Written discussion to [6],” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 11, no. 1, p. 168, Feb. 1996. [16] B. N. Parlett, “The Rayleigh quotient iteration and some generalizations for nonnormal matrices,” Math. Comp., vol. 28, no. 127, pp. 679–693, Jul. 1974. [17] G. H. Golub and C. F. van Loan, Matrix Computations, 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins Univ. Press, 1996. [18] Y. Saad, Numerical Methods for Large Eigenvalue Problems: Theory and Algorithms. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester Univ. Press, 1992. [19] M. E. Hochstenbach, “Two-sided and alternating Jacobi-Davidson,” Lin. Alg. Appl., vol. 358, no. 1–3, pp. 145–172, 2003. [20] D. R. Fokkema, G. L. G. Sleijpen, and H. A. van der Vorst, “JacobiDavidson style QR and QZ algorithms for the reduction of matrix pencils,” SIAM J. Sci. Comp., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 94–125, 1998. [21] L. A. Aguirre, “Quantitative measure of modal dominance for continuous systems,” in Proc. 32nd Conf. Decision Control, Dec. 1993, pp. 2405–2410. [22] The Mathworks, Inc., Matlab R13 [Online]. Available: http://www. mathworks.com. [23] N. Martins, F. G. Silva, and P. C. Pellanda, “Utilizing transfer function modal equivalents of low-order for the design of power oscillation damping controllers in large power systems,” in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. General Meeting, June 2005, pp. 2642–2648. [24] C. Gama, L. Ängquist, G. Ingeström, and M. Noroozian, “Commissioning and operative experience of TCSC for damping power oscillation in the Brazilian north-south interconnection,” in Proc. CIGRÉ Session No. 38, Aug. 2000, paper 14-104.. [25] Impact of the Interactions Among Power System Controls, CIGRE, Tech. Rep. 166, Jul. 2000.

Joost Rommes received the M.Sc. degree in computational science in 2002 and the M.Sc. degree in computer science in 2003 from Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Currently, he is pursuing the Ph.D. degree at the Mathematical Institute, Utrecht University, and works on model reduction and large scale eigenvalue problems.

Nelson Martins (SM’91–F’98) received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering in 1972 from University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, U.K., in 1974 and 1978, respectively. He has been with CEPEL, Rio de Janeiro, since 1978 in the development of computer tools for power system dynamics and control. Dr. Martins is the Convenor of the CIGRE TF 38.02.23 on Coordinated Voltage Control in Transmission Networks and the current Chair of the Power System Stability Controls Subcommittee, PSDP Committee, IEEE Power Engineering Society.

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zeros can be computed as the dominant poles of the inverse transfer function by .... As the controller K is determined by the designer and is, in general, of small ...

Efficient Estimation of Critical Load Levels Using ... - IEEE Xplore
4, NOVEMBER 2011. Efficient Estimation of Critical Load Levels. Using Variable Substitution Method. Rui Bo, Member, IEEE, and Fangxing Li, Senior Member, ...

Incorporating the Loss Function into Discriminative ... - IEEE Xplore
21, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2010. Incorporating the Loss Function into Discriminative. Clustering of Structured Outputs. Wenliang Zhong, Weike Pan, James T. Kwok, ...

Computation Offloading for Real-Time Health ... - IEEE Xplore
Abstract—Among the major challenges in the development of real-time wearable ... mobile application using a technology such as Bluetooth. Local computation ...

A Computation Control Motion Estimation Method for ... - IEEE Xplore
Nov 5, 2010 - tion estimation (ME) adaptively under different computation or ... proposed method performs ME in a one-pass flow. Experimental.

IEEE Photonics Technology - IEEE Xplore
Abstract—Due to the high beam divergence of standard laser diodes (LDs), these are not suitable for wavelength-selective feed- back without extra optical ...

Energy Efficient Content Distribution in an ISP Network - IEEE Xplore
The content data is delivered towards the clients following a path on the tree from the root, i.e., the Internet peering point. A storage cache can be located at each node of the network, providing a potential facility for storing data. Moreover, cac

Bandwidth-Efficient WDM Channel Allocation for Four ... - IEEE Xplore
52, NO. 12, DECEMBER 2004. Bandwidth-Efficient WDM Channel Allocation for. Four-Wave Mixing-Effect Minimization. Vrizlynn L. L. Thing, P. Shum, and M. K. ...

Efficient MR Inhomogeneity Correction by Regularized ... - IEEE Xplore
Magnetic Resonance (MR) images usually exhibit intensity inhomogeneity (bias field) due to non-uniformity generated from RF coils or radiation-patient ...

An Energy Efficient Multi-channel MAC Protocol for ... - IEEE Xplore
Department of Computer Engineering, Kyung Hee University, 449-701, ... Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Kwangwoon University, ...

A Gram-Based String Paradigm for Efficient Video ... - IEEE Xplore
Mar 13, 2013 - semination of video data has created an urgent demand for the large-scale ... video sequence, retrieval is performed by transforming the query.

Efficient Multiple Hypothesis Tracking by Track Segment ... - IEEE Xplore
Burlington, MA, USA. {chee.chong, greg.castanon, nathan.cooprider, shozo.mori balasubramaniam.ravichandran}@baesystems.com. Robert Macior. Air Force ...

An Efficient Geometric Algorithm to Compute Time ... - IEEE Xplore
An Efficient Geometric Algorithm to Compute Time-optimal trajectories for a Car-like Robot. Huifang Wang, Yangzhou Chen and Philippe Sou`eres.