EIP
ISBN 99936-25-00-0 | Volume 01 | Number 01 | Spring 2016
ISBN 99936-25-00-0
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Volume 01
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Number 01
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Spring 2016
IN THIS ISSUE PAPERS Multi-grade Teaching in Bhutan: Congruency amongst Policies, Teacher Education, and Practice Cogenerative Dialogue to Transform Classroom Practices of Pre-service Science Teachers Bodhisattva Leadership: The Leadership of Selfless Beings
Pawan Kucita and T.W. Maxwell
Investigating Chemical Laboratory Safety based on Students’ ability to Recognise the Common Laboratory Hazard Symbols
Dumcho Wangdi and Sonam Tshomo
Strategies for Teaching Physics: An Action Research POLICY BRIEF A Blueprint for Educational Development A Policy Highlight
Sherab Jatsho and Sonam Rinchen
Tashi Gyeltshen
EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION AND PRACTICE
A biannual journal of Samtse College of Education
Dorji Thinley
K C Jose MacAndrew Jack
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BOOK REVIEW The Himalayan Bridge INTERVIEW Future of Counselling Programmes ...
Sonam Rinchen
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Printed at KMT Press, Phuentsholing
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SAMTSE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION Royal University of Bhutan
Educational Innovation and Practice - A biannual journal of Samtse College of Education Aims and Scope: Educational Innovation and Practice (EIP) – the biannual journal of Samtse College Education, aims to publish articles that encompass all forms of educational inquiry with close attention paid to the explicit connection between the theories employed and the data explained and used. The journal encourages empirical and non-empirical research, commentaries, scholarly perspectives, book reviews, and policy briefs relating to teacher education and issues related to educational innovation and practice generally. EIP’s primary, but not exclusive, audience includes teacher educators, teachers, educational leaders, students, policy makers, educational researchers and scholars, and others interested in educational development in Bhutan.
EDITORS Dorji Thinley, Samtse College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan; Sonam Rinchen, Samtse College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan; Caroline Leach, Samtse College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan;
REVIEWERS Par-Ola Zander, Aalborg University, Denmark; Soren Willert, Aalborg University, Denmark; Tom Maxwell, University of New England, Australia; MacAndrew Jack, Naropa University, USA; Kezang Sherab, Paro College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan; Singye Namgyel, Thuksey Consultancy, Bhutan; Tshering Wangmo, Paro College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan; Dorji Wangchuk, Paro College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan Editorial correspondence: Any inquiries related to EIP, including manuscripts for submission, should be addressed to Sonam Rinchen at
[email protected]
________________________ Copyright 2016 Samtse College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, transmitted, or disseminated, in any form, or by any means, without prior written permission from the Samtse College of Education, to whom all requests to reproduce copyright material should be directed, in writing.
EIP
Educational Innovation & Practice
CONTENTS ________________________________________________ PAPERS Multi-grade Teaching in Bhutan: Congruency amongst Policies, Teacher Education, and Practices Pawan Kucita and T.W. Maxwell
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Cogenerative Dialogue to Transform Classroom Practices of Pre-Service Science Teachers Sonam Rinchen
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Bodhisattva Leadership: The Leadership of Selfless Beings Tashi Gyeltshen
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Investigating Chemical Laboratory Safety Based on Students’ Ability to Recognise the Common Laboratory Hazard Symbols Dumcho Wangdi and Sonam Tshomo
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Strategies for Teaching Physics: An Action Research Sherab Jatsho and Sonam Rinchen
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POLICY BRIEF A Blueprint for Educational Development A Policy Highlight Dorji Thinley
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BOOK REVIEW The Himalayan Bridge Jose K C
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INTERVIEW Future of Counselling Programmes ... MacAndrew Jack
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PAPERS Multi-grade Teaching in Bhutan: Congruency amongst Policies, Teacher, Education, and Practices PAWAN KUCITA AND T.W. MAXWELL
Abstract
Equity demands in the form of the Education for All imperative resulted in the Bhutanese Government developing community schools for rural and remote primary age children and introducing multigrade teaching in these schools over the last two decades. Because little research has been undertaken in this area, Kucita’s (2010) doctoral study was undertaken. This paper addresses the degree of between policies, teacher education and practices in schools. The study used a mixed method approach incorporating a document analysis and ten final year B.Ed students were interviewed in order to obtain prospective multi-grade teachers’ views about multi-grade teaching. A quantitative study (Kucita, Kuyini, Maxwell & Kivunja, 2012) and a qualitative study (Kucita, Kivunja, Maxwell & Kuyini, 2013) completed the data. Multi-grade schooling has achieved its main purpose of giving rural and remote Bhutanese children access to primary schooling (Maxwell, 2012). This study identified discrepancies between policy and practice, particularly the mismatch between teacher education and the demands on teachers teaching in multi-grade situations. A serious problem remains: there appears to be a lack of policy initiative to produce an aligned curriculum to facilitate multigrade classroom planning. Another policy and practice issue appears to be the human resourcing of multi-grade schools. Education leaders have strong intentions but must come up with a comprehensive policy to support all the integrated components required for quality multi-grade education. As well as the aligned curriculum, additional resources are needed (relative to mono-grade).
Key words: Multi-grade teaching, Teacher education, B.Ed students, Policy and practice, Multi-grade schools
Introduction Multi-grade schooling is an international phenomenon. Many developing countries use multi-grade settings to provide access to rural and remote schools as part of their thrust to achieve Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It became necessary when, in 1990, Bhutan became a signatory to the Education for All (EFA) initiative (Royal Government of Bhutan [RGoB, 2003]). The Bhutanese Government at that time recognised that multigrade education in remote community schools was a means to achieve EFA goals and hence MDGs (Ninnes, Maxwell, Rabten, & Karchung, 2007; Pridmore, 2004). Bhutan is a tiny Himalayan Kingdom sandwiched between Southern India and Northern China. In Bhutan, western educational development has been late in comparison to its neighbours. Over time and with the support of a range of agencies (Dorji, 2015;
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Maxwell, 2008), the government of Bhutan took measures to increase the number of primary and secondary schools from the 1960s figure of only 11 primary schools – that served fewer than 500 children – to 476 schools and education institutions in 2005 (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2005). Since the early 1960s, the number of schools has grown from 11 to 659, student attendance grew from 400 to 172,222 and the number of teachers from 90 to 8,572 (MoE, 2014a). Before the literature related to this framework is discussed, some background knowledge about multi-grade teaching generally and within Bhutan is necessary. After this background is introduced, the congruency problem will be identified, which is at the heart of this paper.
What is Multi-grade Teaching? Small primary and community schools have a well-established rural tradition in many countries, including Bhutan. In the majority of small rural schools, there may be several grade levels in one classroom taught by one teacher, hence multi-grade. Small schools have been established and organised in this way because of the need for children in remote, isolated and scattered communities to have access to schooling. However, multi-grade schools also exist for pedagogical rather than administrative reasons (Cornish, 2006). Cornish (2006) divides multi-grade teaching into two elements: (1) multi-grade class situations - multigrade class, a composite class, a multi-age class, a mixed grade class, a staged class; and (2) the teaching practices or strategies used in these situations - split timetable (subject stagger), common timetable, whole-class teaching as part of the lesson, subject grouping, curriculum rotation, within-grade grouping in order to arrange the teaching of the different groups (Cornish, 2006).
Multi-grade Teaching in Bhutan Multi-grade teaching was introduced in 1991 to address issues of distance-to-school in mountainous rural and remote Bhutan in order to promote access to primary education (Maxwell, 2012; Strawbridge, 1994). Multi-grade teacher in-service programmes of national level had been established (Laird, Maxwell, Tenzin, & Jamtsho 1999) with support from the government and external agencies such as United Nation International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the Swiss Co-operation Agency using other than the centralised national model (Ninnes, et al., 2006; Maxwell, 2012). Multi-grade teaching was introduced into the pre-service Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) and into the in-service B.Ed via distance education (DE) from 2005 (MoE 2005). Whereas in 1990 there were none, in 2004, 98 out of 292 (33%) primary and community schools were multi-grade schools catering then for approximately 37,800 stu-
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dents (RGoB, 2006). This figure increased to 137 new multi-grade schools in the ninth education plan (2002-2007). In 2009, 33 Extended Classrooms (ECRs) were also established to further increase access to primary education for more than 1000 children in very remote areas (Pridmore, 2009/ 2004). ECRs are schools with one teacher and two or three grades, which were established at the start of 2009 in order to increase access to education in very remote areas. Clearly there is a government commitment to multi-grade schooling.
The Problem Although multi-grade teaching has been deployed in Bhutan for nearly two decades, there has been no comprehensive study on related policy, teacher education and teaching practices. There have been some small scale studies however. A small study of multi-grade teaching in 2002 conducted by a team of Education Monitoring and Support Services Division (EMSSD) officials found a discrepancy between what multi-grade teachers do in practice and what they say about multi-grade teaching (EMSSD, 2002). Most teachers were trying to replicate the mono-grade organisation in their multi-grade classrooms by teaching each grade separately but simultaneously. The Bhutan country report (Rabten, 2004) presented at the 2nd International Multi-grade Teaching Conference in Bangkok in 2004 revealed some significant challenges to achieving quality multi-grade education. The reported challenges included policy development, curriculum structure, teaching methods, resources and classroom organisation. In their study of the two education institutes in Bhutan, VanBalkom and Sherman (2010) found “The B.Ed students interviewed suggested that they would have benefitted from strategies that are more specifically aimed at the large class sizes in many rural Bhutanese schools and multi-grade classes” (VanBalkom & Sherman, 2010, 49) and “Some school-based educators pointed out that they faced multigrade classes for the first time after graduation and that they felt ill-prepared for that additional challenge” (VanBalkom & Sherman, 2010, 51). This also meant that there were fewer opportunities for students to gain the benefits of multi-grade teaching that come from social interaction across age and gender boundaries, collaborative group work and learning with peers (Cornish, 2006). In other words, there is an apparent gap between the Government’s intention to provide all children access to education and its intention to provide quality education to children in rural and remote parts of Bhutan. The purpose of this study was to examine the congruencies between the government’s policy intentions compared to multi-grade practice at the classroom level and in teacher education. The relationship intended is set out in Figure 1 where the congruency between policy and practice is the key concern with teacher education (broadly conceived as including pre-and in-service education) as having an intervening impact. This article focuses upon policy and the implications for policy.
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Teacher Education
Practice
Figure 1. Congruency between multi-grade policy and practice with teacher education. It might be anticipated that in an ideal world: i.
A clear policy, plan and strategies that indicate a high level of commitment on the part of government to support the implementation of multi-grade teaching would be developed; ii. Pre and in-service teacher education programmes should clearly have responsibility for preparing teachers who are equipped with the knowledge and skills to organise effective multi-grade teaching. This must especially be the case in Bhutan where approximately one third of primary schools are multi-grade; and iii. Practice is how teachers actually apply the skills that they learned from the teacher pre- and/or in-service education or that they have learned by themselves in the multigrade classroom
Method The study used a mixed method approach and is part of a doctoral research programme (Kucita, 2010). In terms of the present study, a document analysis was undertaken to provide an understanding of policy and the intentions behind policy, particularly the development and alignment of the primary curriculum to make it suitable to multi-grade teaching over the years since the early 1990s when multi-grade was first used in Bhutan. All the major documents available on multi-grade in Bhutan were analysed: i. Bhutan 2020 (RGoB, 1999); ii. 25th and 26th Education Policy Guidelines and Instructions (RGoB, 2006; 2007);
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Tenth Five Year Plan (RGoB, 2007); Curriculum Handbook for Schools (RGoB, 1996); Bhutan education Blueprint 2014-2024: Rethinking education (MoE, 2014b); and Operational Guidelines for Central Schools (MoE, 2014c).
As well as analysing teacher education documentation, ten final year B.Ed students were interviewed in order to obtain prospective multi-grade teachers’ views about multi-grade teaching. A related quantitative study (Kucita, Kuyini, Maxwell & Kivunja, 2012) used a representative sample of multi-grade teachers in Bhutan to determine their conceptions of multi-grade teaching and the multi-grade practices. This study was complemented by a qualitative study addressing stakeholders’ perceptions about multi-grade (Kucita, Kivunja, Maxwell & Kuyini, 2013).
Results The following key results are grouped in order of the study model (see Figure 1).
Policy The overarching Bhutanese policy context set out in Bhutan 2020 (RGoB, 1999) contributes to the ways in which the goal of education for all is being pursued. Broadly the values of Gross National Happiness (GNH) underpin all government development models. Multigrade education in rural and remote communities falls squarely within the GNH imperative. How do the policies develop this? General public concern about the low quality of education in the country (see Dorji, 2005) resulted in an extensive debate in 2006, culminating in an executive order issued by the Prime Minister’s office consisting of strategies and measures to improve the quality of education. The Prime Minister’s executive order (RGoB, 2006b) details 88 governmentapproved strategies and measures to address educational quality. The Ministry of Education and the Royal University of Bhutan were directed to implement it fully, in spirit and in practice. Some of the strategies that are directly or indirectly related to multi-grade teaching are set out in Tables 1 and 2 below. As indicated in Table 1, multi-grade teachers would be affected by the process of curriculum reform and implementation. The core subjects such as Mathematics, English and Dzongkha for pre-primary (PP [kindergarten]) to Grade 6 were to be reviewed and revised.
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Table 1 Curriculum Development Strategies Affecting Multi-grade Schooling (2006-2020); Short, Medium and Long term (RGoB, 2006b) Enhancing curriculum quality Short-term (2006-2007) English curriculum reform and implementation for grades 5-12
Medium-term (2008-2012) English curriculum reform and implementation for grades PP-4; Mathematics curriculum reform and implementation for grades PP-8; Dzongkha curriculum reform and implementation for grades PP-8; and Science curriculum reform and implementation for grades PP-12.
Long-term (2013-2020) Continue with curriculum reform, adaptation and diversification in keeping with the changing times and needs
Other developments in the long term policy (Table 2) indicate that in 2008-2012 the government will continue to establish small community schools which, for the most part, would use multi-grade teaching strategies. However, from 2013-2020, the government of the day no longer intends to expand small community schools but rather to consolidate school facilities to accommodate school-age children from small villages. This is a policy of the present government (MoE, 2014b; 2014c). There remains a difficulty (as with almost all students from remote areas) for students who desire to go to secondary school: they must find a secondary school place and also somewhere to live away from their families. This is an area where central schools will likely have a role (MoE, 2014c). Of particular note is the short term goal of strengthening the multi-grade modules at the Institutes and in the curriculum as aligned subject areas specifically for multi-grade teacher planning. A small amount of alignment work remains to be done (Wangpo Tenzin, personal communication, 10/10/2015).
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Table 2 Other Developments in Education (RGoB, 2006b) Short-term (2006-2007) Strengthen care for individual students and identify counseling needs (all teachers, especially class teachers, to take responsibility) Strengthen multi-grade modules at SCEs and continue diploma in multi-grade teaching
Medium-term (2008-2012) Continue monitoring and supporting value education by the DEOs and EMSSD
Long-term(2013-2020) Consolidate facilities (there will be less need for expansion beyond the 10th Plan (2013)
Establish support network within schools/cluster schools through the use of master teachers. Hardware supply to meet student to computer ratio of 1:10 in HSS an MSS by 2010 Establish small community primary schools Establish small boarding schools to cater to scattered settlements
The MoE published a policy document in 2003 explaining the purpose of school education and outlining broad learning areas (MoE, 2006). All new subject curricula were developed for mono - rather than multi-grade classrooms at the time of this research. “Aligned curriculum” for multi-grade schools is a document(s) that arranges the subject areas so that they can be taught across grade levels. Some indication may also be given where separate curriculum subjects can be taught together using a congruence or complementarity of ideas. Multi-grade teachers needed the realigned subject curriculum documents rather than the separate curriculum documents for preparing lessons and these have been developed in recent years (e.g., MoE, 2011). The reason this is essential can be seen where an overview of the general education curriculum for PP to Grade 6 is presented in Table 3. There are seven areas of learning covering 13 subjects for Grades PP to 6. This means that it is almost impossible for a multi-grade teacher to plan effectively as each area has its own curriculum document. For example a teacher teaching classes four to six would need to plan in 3 x 7 areas or 4 x
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12 subjects. This means that in the latter scenario 48 documents would need to be referred to in order to plan activities for the group. Table 3 General Education Curriculum Grade PP-6 Learning Area
Subjects
Primary Education PP
Language
1
2
3
4
5
6
Dzongkha English
Mathematics
Mathematics
Science and Technology Science Human Society and Environment
Environmental Studies Social Studies
Creative and Practical Arts
Visual arts and craft Song, dance, music
Health, Physical Education and Personal Development
Health and Population Education Games and Sports Moral and Value Education Scouts
Socially useful and Productive work
Agriculture and Social Forestry
Key: Learning areas with specific subjects and periods set in the timetable Learning areas addressed in co-curricular programmes, school organisation or integrated in the subject areas
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Teacher friendly support materials are needed for any curriculum initiative. The first multigrade Handbook for teachers in Bhutan, Multi-grade Organisation and Teaching in Primary School: a Handbook for Teachers in Bhutan (Strawbridge, 1994), was developed by David Strawbridge and is one of the key documents the MoE has been using to guide the implementation of multi-grade teaching in Bhutan. It outlines the broad concept of multigrade, its organisation, planning, teaching aids and assessment and evaluation. The second edition of this Handbook was published and distributed to support teachers in 2002. Yet, only 40 per cent of the teachers had the Handbook in 2002 (EMSSD, 2002) In addition to this multi-grade Handbook, there were other multi-grade teaching and learning materials developed by EMSSD and Curriculum and Professional Support Division (CAPSD), MoE: work cards, worksheets, ideas folders and more. These materials have been produced and used in multi-grade classes across the country (Rabten, 2004). In summary, since the introduction of multi-grade education in Bhutan as an equity issue, there has been no explicit and comprehensive policy directly developed to facilitate implementation. The government has, however, recognised multi-grade teaching as one of the key strategies for achieving Education for All by producing materials of various kinds and the initiative for aligned curricula specifically for multi-grade classrooms appears to have been followed up in recent curriculum development work.
Teacher Education Teacher education in Bhutan has been developing since the early 1970s. Until 2002, the pre-service curriculum contained very little on multi-grade teaching (Rabten, 2004).The teacher training programme was oriented towards monograde teaching situations. However, more attention has been given to multi-grade teaching in recent years, for example, the inclusion of a module in multi-grade skills in the pre-service B.Ed Primary teacher education curriculum. The development of multi-grade modules in the in-service B.Ed programme through distance education (Maxwell, 2012; Tshering Wangmo, personal communication, 2005). In order to get some understanding of the undergraduate perspective, ten final year B.Ed (primary) students were interviewed in 2009. In response to the question about their feelings about multi-grade teaching, eight of them were negative. They did not want to teach in a multi-grade school. This underpins the difficulties that MoE Human Resources has in making placements to multi-grade schools (see below). Some undergraduates also had a view about the issue of curriculum alignment for multi-grade teachers. One of the interviewees echoed the view of others by saying: “Currently our primary education curriculum does not facilitate multi-grade teaching. It is difficult for the teachers to prepare lesson plans to teach topics to several grades together.” The new recruits at that time did not want to go for the reason given (no aligned curriculum)
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but also no doubt because the remoteness of most settings means that social relationships are curtailed and because facilities are usually very basic.
Practice We have represented practice in terms of teachers’ perceptions, leaders’ perceptions and parents’ perceptions of multi-grade education.
Teachers’ Perceptions From our research, it seems that many teachers still do not have the right skills to teach multi-grade classes. Key evidence, summarised from Kucita, Kuyini, Maxwell and Kivunja (2012) and Kucita, Kivunja, Maxwell and Kuyini (2013) is as follows: • Most teachers used a quasi mono-grade teaching strategy (teacher teaches grade groups in turn as if they were mono-grades). However, there are clearly some teachers, perhaps one quarter, who are teaching consistent with an accepted model of multi-grade teaching and learning; • Use of self and group learning exercises, and organisation of older pupils to take over some routine management functions such as peer teaching and marking are some other initiatives that have been practiced in multi-grade classes; • With regard to the distribution of teacher time and organisation of curriculum, some teachers distributed their time differentially between the two groups, treating one grade as the main group and the other as an additional group. Students in the additional group worked on self-learning activities. A pupil monitor was sometimes appointed to supervise a group; in other settings, no monitor had been appointed; and • In-service training sessions on multi-grade teaching were having an influence in understanding of the concept of multi-grade but most teachers could not distinguish amongst the three definitions set out in the standard Strawbridge multi-grade book. In-service training had no apparent effect on practice. The reasons for this are not altogether clear but many have included a lack of on-the-ground strategies, lack of useful resources and a lack of follow up. Additionally, teaching in Bhutan is traditionally teacher-centred and multi-grade requires a move away from this approach. This is hard to do. About 30% of the 200+ multi-grade teachers said they did not have enough training. The multi-grade teaching practices that were implemented depended on greater length of teaching experience and training received in multi-grade teaching over the years. In other words, those with greater experience used a wider range of strategies; and • The lack of an aligned curriculum was seen as a major planning hurdle by multi-grade teachers of that time.
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Educational Leaders’ Views Questions about multi-grade education were asked of educational leaders from the Bhutan Board of Examination, the Education Monitoring and Support Service, the Curriculum and Professional Support Department, and at the headquarters of the MoE and the College of Education, Paro. In response to the question: “What are the perceptions you have about using multi-grade teaching as a strategy to achieve quality universal primary education?”, this group indicated they were aware of the policy that multi-grade schooling can provide access to basic education for the children in the remote and scattered communities. As one of the department heads said: “The Ministry of Education recognised multi-grade teaching as a key and important strategy for achieving good quality Education for All.” The capacity to read and write English and Dzongkha and hence to participate in community, district and national development activities is central to an effective democracy. They thought that multi-grade teaching would be used in the education system for many years to come The educational leaders recognised the consistent efforts made by the MoE to support multi-grade schooling in terms of teacher training, material support and budget allocation. However, the educational leaders also realised that although the demand for education was increasing and the number of multi-grade schools also increased every year, many teachers were still not able to access multi-grade training. One leader recommended that: “There must be a master plan to train teachers and allocate resources to support multi-grade schools in the long run”. Another confirmed the policy adopted during the Teacher Education Board meeting on 7th June 2007 which stated “There should be no untrained teachers sent to multi-grade schools.” However he said that: The Human Resources Department is not implementing this policy. For example, there are not enough trained teachers and we do not have a good record of teachers who are trained in multi-grade teaching [as] many teachers who are trained in multi-grade have been sent to teach in monograde schools.
These leaders also indicated that unless there was a re-alignment of the curriculum to facilitate multi-grade teaching, teachers would face significant difficulties in planning and teaching multi-grade classes. Interestingly, some of this group recognised “multi-grade teaching is being used to solve the teacher shortage in schools.” The policy of staffing multi-grade schools is a difficult one. There is an understanding that recently graduated teachers would be placed in multi-grade schools for at least two years. However, new teacher graduates when sent to multi-grade schools were only allowed to attend national based in-service programmes after having worked for two years. As a result, teachers relied on whatever knowledge and skills they gained from their college and on trial and error. Staffing these schools is not easy as these schools are in rugged and remote areas and most young female teachers are reluctant to be posted
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there. The MoE Human Resources Department appears to agree on this. A large majority of multi-grade teachers in Bhutan are male. While this is understandable it is unfortunate for a number of reasons not the least being that primary-aged girl students do not have access to alternative female role models.
Parents’ Views One of the educational leaders shared his experience during a visit to a multi-grade school: Parents are found to be unwilling to send their children as boarders to bigger schools away from their village; they rather like to enroll their children in the community school nearby their home.
Ten parents of children in multi-grade schools were interviewed. Most, if not all were illiterate in either Dzongkha and/or English. Some did not really understand what multi-grade was but eight out of ten parents perceived community schooling as positive, providing basic education for their children. One of the interviewees expressed appreciation to the government for providing teachers and text books for children in community schools saying: “I think my children learned a lot from our teachers who are teaching them very well.” This parent explained that before attending school, her child could not read and write. The parents felt that their children were enjoying learning in multi-grade classes. As one interviewee mentioned: “My daughter was in class 4. She was very much enjoying learning in school. The school is close to our house. As a result she [was] never absent from school.” On the other hand, some parents were skeptical about multi-grade teaching. One of the interviewees for example said: “I think multi-grade teaching is difficult and hard work for teachers.” The interviewee went on to explain that when one teacher is out attending a meeting, the children are left unattended and inactive. Some interviewees were uncertain about their children’s education. But on the whole the parents were happy to have their children in a (multi-grade) school. However, they knew that it was difficult for teachers to teach many grades. This was the view of educational leaders who were at the same time more aware of the importance of multi-grade as a strategic move to provide primary education rural and remote areas.
Discussion The study set out to analyse the Royal Government of Bhutan’s policy documents associated with multi-grade schooling issued over approximately the past ten years. The study also examined both pre- and in-service teacher training for teachers for multi-grade teaching and finally summarised our research on the teaching practices of teachers in multi-grade
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classrooms. Broadly there was some lack of congruence between policy, teacher education and practice as discussed below. Firstly, there has been a strong policy imperative to develop multi-grade school as an equity issue. This policy has strong support at all levels (except perhaps from undergraduate teachers). This is consistent with the need to provide access to all primary aged children as Bhutan is a signatory to the Education for All agreement. The development of multi-grade can also be seen as consistent with key internal policy imperative, notably Bhutan’s policy driver: Gross National Happiness. There is also congruence with the notion that as a new democracy, Bhutan needs its entire people to be literate. There has been a signal, however, that the strong development of multi-grade over the last two decades will decrease in the next decade. The provision of multi-grade can also be viewed as an administrative necessity. It is simply not possible to staff small schools with one teacher for every grade. Secondly, there was a mismatch between policy and practice in teacher deployment to multi-grade and monograde schools. Policy says that no teachers untrained in multi-grade teaching should be sent to multi-grade schools. This policy has not been fully implemented. The study also found that the Human Resources Department did not have sufficiently good records when it came to knowing which teachers were trained in multigrade teaching. Moreover, the policy to retain staff in multi-grade schools for just two years, while understandable as an approach to encourage staff to accept a posting there, does not provide the kind of continuity in relationships that young children require. We also note the practice over the years of the disproportionate number of male teachers in multi-grade schools. Thirdly, despite the strong policy thrust, and indeed the provision of at least one third of schools as multi-grade, many teachers who were teaching and trained in multigrade teaching methods through pre and in-service training could not apply their knowledge and skills in their multi-grade classes. There are many reasons for this including a lack of teaching and learning materials appropriate to multi-grade teaching, the negative attitudes held towards multi-grade teaching and perhaps most importantly of all, the custom and practice in Bhutan of teacher-centred instruction which assumes teaching to the whole grade as though it was homogeneous. As a result many of these teachers are not effectively teaching multi-grade classes but are using monograde strategies, that is, alternating instruction as if there were two separate classes. The quality of multi-grade teaching practices depended on academic, professional, teaching experiences and training received over the years. The study revealed that training in multi-grade pedagogy alone could not help multi-grade teachers to develop skills and confidence enough to help them properly practice. What mattered was the length of experience as teachers adapted their practices over time. Given the difficulties it is perhaps surprising that even one quarter of multi-grade teachers are using recognizable multi-grade strategies at all. This is an impor-
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tant outcome. Fourthly, there was general recognition of the problems associated with planning from multiple documents. The lack of an aligned curriculum was known as a serious impediment to planning at all levels. The lack of an aligned curriculum was also likely to mean that mono-grade strategies will become more prevalent in the multi-grade classes. An aligned curriculum, by its nature, would show ways of within-subject integration, that is, across grade/class boundaries. Clearly this need for an aligned curriculum has been recognised by the MoE. Finally, in 2005, the pre-service curriculum started to include multi-grade teaching as a module throughout the Colleges of Education. A year later the distance education B.Ed in-service upgrade award incorporated multi-grade modules. The initiatives in multi-grade in-service in Australia (Maxwell, 2012) and Canada over more than a decade have also taken place. National Based In-service Programmes in multi-grade have been conducted over many years. However, our research supports some local research (e.g., EMSSD, 2002) to show that these modules do not appear to be having a great impact on practices but do perhaps contribute to the understanding of multi-grade. Much more effort appears to be needed to address multi-grade practice imperatives to break through the custom and practice of teaching to the single grade. The issue is wider than this, however. Teacher education and teacher educators in particular, need to move out of teacher-centred to more student-centred strategies (see Gyamtso & Maxwell, 2012).
Conclusion There has been a clear imperative to develop multi-grade schools over a twenty year period. The serious problem of a lack of an aligned curriculum to facilitate multi-grade classroom planning has been overcome over the last five years. Another policy and practice issue appears to be the human resourcing of multi-grade schools. Education leaders have strong intentions but must come up with a comprehensive policy to support all the integrated components required for quality multi-grade education. In addition to the aligned curriculum, further resources are needed (relative to mono-grade). This study reflected a discrepancy between policy and practice, particularly the mismatch between teacher education and the demands on teachers teaching in multi-grade situations. The on-going introduction of multi-grade teaching into the pre-service teacher training curriculum is a crucial and sustainable strategic action that will improve multigrade teaching. This strategic action needs to stand alongside the development of studentcentred practices in teacher education. This would then promote institution-led change away from the teacher-centered practices that are most common in Bhutanese classrooms, including in university classrooms. Breaking teacher-centred dominance in teaching/learning practices will be a major change that will require considerable resources. Support for
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this assertion comes with the knowledge that the Ministry has already spent considerable sums on in-service teacher development. Some changes are evident but more needs to be done. Despite a strong commitment to multi-grade schooling as part of a strategy for achieving EFA and Bhutan’s MDGs, there are still significant differences in the ways in which key stakeholders perceive and understand multi-grade teaching. The focus of multigrade policy and implementation has in the past been on building schools and enhancing the capacity of multi-grade teachers through in-service teacher training. Most educational leaders understood multi-grade schooling as necessary. More needs to be done in convincing parents and community that multi-grade schooling is an important and legitimate part of their children’s and the country’s education system. Taken together, this would suggest that advocacy and community mobilisation need to be part of an education programme so that teachers are aware and equipped to communicate and sensitize parents and community on the importance of multi-grade education. Besides, it would also be important to identify multi-grade schools where neither Dzongkha nor English is spoken at home. In these cases, Dzongkha and English are being learned as second languages requiring particular teaching/learning practices. These two ideas are little recognised in Bhutan (Maxwell & Schuelka, 2015). There is a clear indication that more research needs to be carried out on language learning in multi-grade classrooms. It is unlikely that any single strategy will lead to significant improvements in student learning in multi-grade situations because synergy is needed between all of the components including but not limited to the curriculum division, the monitoring division, the Colleges of Education, Non-Government Organisations (NGO) supporting in-service and the in-service leaders, materials development agencies, the human resource (deployment) agency and the multi-grade teachers themselves (Little, 2006). Policy is a critical factor in leading to action. The importance of having a set of documents containing an agreed alignment of the national curriculum to suit multi-grade teaching cannot be over emphasised. However, the production of the aligned curriculum is just a beginning. It would be more effective if teachers could be oriented in the use of the re-aligned curriculum to help them plan their teaching and use teaching aids to support the teaching and learning process. This could be achieved through effective in-service programmes. Rather than one-off events, in-service needs to encompass a series of activities (see Maxwell 2001). The quality of teaching and learning depends on the quality of teachers. The quality of teachers depends, at least in part, on the pre-and in-service training that the teacher has received. Additionally, multi-grade classrooms need relatively more resources than their mono-grade counterparts. This could be a task for donor agencies. The key to effective teaching-learning practice in such schools is multi-level teaching, using group and self-learning materials. Therefore, the development of flexible interactive self-learning materials for multi-grade students that are relevant to the curriculum is recommended. To
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improve multi-grade teaching, classrooms should be big enough to allow teachers to organise learner-centered activities appropriate to the number of children in the class. Movement is generally greater in multi-grade classrooms. They need to be bigger. The advent of multi-grade community schools has been an important initiative in Bhutan but more work is required.
References Cornish, L. (Ed.) (2006). Reaching EFA through multi-grade teaching. Issues, contexts and practices. Armidale: Kardoorair Press. Dorji, J. (2005). The quality of education in Bhutan, Thimphu, Bhutan: KTM Publishers. Dorji, J. (2015, forthcoming). International influence and support of educational development in Bhutan. In M. Schuelka & T.W. Maxwell (Eds.) Education in Bhutan: From the Buddhist monastery to Gross National Happiness education, Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects Series, London: Springer. Education Monitoring and Support Services Division. (2002). A study on theory and practice of multi-grade teaching and learning in Bhutan. Thimphu, Bhutan: Department of Education, Ministry of Health and Education. Gyamtso, D. C., & Maxwell, T.W. (2012). Present practices and background to teaching and learning at the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB): A pilot study. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 24 (1), 65-75. Kucita, P. (2010). Multi-grade teaching as a strategy to achieve universal primary education in Bhutan: An analysis of current policies and practices. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of New England. Kucita, P., Kivunja, C., Maxwell, T.W., & Kuyini, A.B. (2013). Bhutanese stakeholders’ perceptions about multi-grade teaching as a strategy for achieving quality universal primary education. International Journal of Educational Development, 33, 206-212. Kucita, P., Kuyini, A.B., Maxwell, T.W., & Kivunja, C. (2012). Factors influencing Bhutanese teachers’ Multi-grade knowledge and teaching practices. Bhutan Journal of Research and Development, 1 (2), 109-124. Laird, D.J., Maxwell, T.W., Tenzin, W., & Jamtsho, S. (1999). INSET within Bhutan,1996-1998 and the INSET framework within Bhutan 2000-2004-6. Thimphu, Bhutan: Personnel Section, Ministry of Health and Education. Little, A. (Ed.) (2007). Education for all and multi-grade teaching: Challenges and opportunities. Dordrecht: Springer. Maxwell. T.W. (2001). International Collaboration for In-service: The Bhutanese Multi-grade Attachment Program”, Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education 29(3), 289-296.
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Maxwell, T.W. (2008). Bhutan. In J. Pattnaik (Ed.) The greenwood encyclopedia of children’s issues worldwide: Asia and Oceania (pp. 55-77). New York: Greenwood Press. Maxwell, T.W. (2012). The impact of the Bhutanese multi-grade attachment program (BMAP). Bhutan Journal of Research and Development, 1(2), 161-170. Maxwell, T.W., & Schuelka, M. (2015, forthcoming). Conclusion. In M. Schuelka & T.W. Maxwell (Eds.) Education in Bhutan - From the Buddhist monastery to Gross National Happiness education. Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects Series, London: Springer. Ministry of Education. (2005). Education statistics year book. Thimphu, Bhutan: Policy and Planning Division, Royal Government of Bhutan. Ministry of Education. (2006). Education statistics year book. Thimphu, Bhutan: Policy and Planning Division, Royal Government of Bhutan. Ministry of Education. (2010). Guide: Educating for GNH (Delegate Booklet). Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Government of Bhutan. Ministry of Education. (2011). MGT mathematics aligned syllabus for Classes IV-VI (w.e.f. 14th – 23rd January 2011) Ministry of Education. (2014a). Annual education statistics-2014. Thimphu, Bhutan: Policy. Thimphu, Bhutan: MoE. and Planning Division, MoE, Royal Government of Bhutan. Ministry of Education. (2014b). Bhutan education Blueprint 2014-2024: Rethinking education. Thimphu: Royal Government of Bhutan. Ministry of Education. (2014c). Operational guidelines for Central Schools. Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Government of Bhutan. Ninnes, P., Maxwell, T.W. Rabten W. & Karchung. (2007). Expanding and enhancing multigrade teaching: The case of Bhutan. In D.P. Baker & A.W. Wiseman (Eds.) Education For All: Global promises national challenges (pp. 187-205). Volume 8, International Perspectives on Education and Society Series, Oxford: Elsevier Science, Ltd. Pridmore, P. (2004). Bhutanese multi-grade curriculum alignment project. Thimphu, Bhutan: Curriculum and Professional Support Division (CAPSD), MoE. Pridmore, P. (2009). Review of multi-grade teaching in Bhutan. London: Institute of Education, University of London. Rabten, W. (2004). Multi-grade teaching as strategy to achieve universal education for All: A Bhutanese experiences from 1992-2004. Paper presented at the 2nd Inter national Multi-grade Teaching Conference: Turning Biases into Benefits, Bangkok, Thailand 8-11 September. Royal Government of Bhutan. (1996). Eight five year plan. Thimphu, Bhutan: Ministry of Finance. Royal Government of Bhutan. (1999). Bhutan vision 2020. Thimphu, Bhutan: MoE. Royal Government of Bhutan. (2003). Bhutan millennium development goals report 2002,
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Thimphu, Bhutan: Digi-Artz. Royal Government of Bhutan. (2006a). 25th Education policy guidelines and instructions. Thimphu, Bhutan: MoE. Royal Government of Bhutan. (2006b). Prime Minister executive order on quality of education. Thimphu, Bhutan: Office of the Prime Minister. Royal Government of Bhutan. (2007a). 26th Education policy guidelines and instructions. Thimphu, Bhutan: MoE. Royal Government of Bhutan. (2007b). Tenth five year plan. Thimphu, Bhutan: Policy and Planning Division, MoE, Strawbridge, D. (1994). Multi-grade organization and teaching in primary schools, hand book for teachers in Bhutan. Paro, Bhutan: KMT Press. VanBalkom, W. D., & Sherman, A. (2010). Teacher education in Bhutan: Highlights and challenges for reform. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 30 (1), 43 - 55.
_______________ About the authors PAWAN KUCITA has worked for UNICEF in Bhutan and has subsequently held posts in Uganda, Afghanistan and is currently Chief of Education Programme, UNICEF, Dhaka, Bangladesh. TOM MAXWELL worked on a number of projects in Bhutan since 1997 and was directly involved in the Bhutanese Multigrade Attachment Programme from 1997 to 2008. Tom retired from the University of New England in 2010.
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Cogenerative Dialogue to Transform Classroom Practices of Pre-Service Science Teachers SONAM RINCHEN
Abstract
This study aimed to transform classroom practices of pre-service teachers’ science class using cogenerative dialogue. Cogenerative dialogues were used to ascertain what worked and what should be strengthened as well as to identify intervention strategies that would improve classroom practices of 28 pre-service teachers and their tutor’s science class. The findings revealed multiple benefits of implementing the intervention strategy of teacher’s use of encouragement arising from the cogenerative dialogue. This intervention strategy was found to improve students’ participation in classroom activities, increase time spent on group activities, and reduce choral responses. In sum, cogenerative dialogue generated both a diagnosis and prognosis: assessing what does and does not work in the classroom and suggesting intervention strategies to redeem those activities that were deleterious to the class.
Key words: Cogenerative dialogue, Classroom practice, Pre-service secondary science teachers, Teacher’s encouragement
Introduction Emdin (2008) defines cogenerative dialogue (cogen) as “conversations in which people come together and discuss a social field or place where they have had and will continue to have a shared experience” (p.774). Cogen was based on the understanding and philosophy that one needs to express and explain personal experiences through collective understanding and activity (Tobin, Seiler, & Walls, 1999). In this study, cogen was used as a platform to share opinions of pre-service teachers with their tutor in a combined effort to understand the activities that unfolded in the classroom. Profound insights into the nature of the classroom arose from the discussion of what the students and their tutor were seeing in the classroom, and personal experiences of students of which the tutor had previously been unaware, particularly those practices that disadvantaged students (Tobin & Roth, 2006). Cogens also proved to be important sources of data to stimulate reflection for both the students and tutor. Acting on students’ input, the tutor and student group collaboratively came up with intervention strategies to be applied in the subsequent class in an attempt to improve the practices that had been identified as detrimental to teaching and learning in the science class.
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Method Participants The participants comprised 28 pre-service secondary science teachers from B. Ed second year majoring in Physics and Maths taught by Ms. Pelmo, their science tutor. The purposeful sampling strategy was employed to draw rich information of a typical case (Creswell, 2008). The research site was chosen through a purposeful selection of Case College of Education at the Royal University of Bhutan. It was a mixed gender (10 females and 18 males) class in the age group of 20–23 years. This class was selected (i.e. purposefully selected) because other cohorts of B.Ed were either new to the college or engaged in other activities.
Procedure The study was conducted in Ms Lemo’s (the tutor) Physics Education class at one of the Colleges of Education, Royal University of Bhutan. Five rounds of cogens were conducted, each of which was preceded by a lesson which was video recorded. All the cogens were held in the afternoon and participants for the cogen included the tutor and three students on a rotation basis with the researcher chairing the cogen session. The average time of each cogen was 40 minutes and all the cogen proceedings were audio recorded. Each cogen commenced with the researcher introducing the rules to the members, emphasising the importance of speaking openly as no voice is privileged; cogen creates a shared space where the tutor and students can exchange dialogue openly (Rinchen, 2014). A salient feature of the video data of the classroom proceedings was shown and discussed with cogen groups to initiate discussions during cogen in which ideas on how to improve the quality of teaching and learning was considered. The cogen sessions concluded with the follow up plan of action to be applied in the subsequent lessons that had been cogenerated by the tutor and students. The subsequent cogens commenced with the researcher confirming with the tutor and students whether the follow up strategy cogenerated in the previous cogen brought any positive impact on the classroom practices. The researcher was also a part of cogen and to minimise any biases, he restricted his role to scheduling and chairing the cogen, following the guidelines set, and keeping notes of the proceedings. The cogen proceedings were transcribed on an ongoing basis. After completing the transcription, the researcher reviewed the recording to confirm that the cogen interactions were captured adequately. The findings from cogen were supplemented by findings from the video data of classroom proceedings and facial expressions of students and their tutor. These displays of non-verbal conduct help in the identification of human emotions (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). For instance, emotions (e.g., surprise, anger, happiness, fear, disgust,
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and sadness) are identified through facial expressions with changes in eyebrows, eye lids, cheeks, nose, lips, and chin [see Table 1] (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). Ekman’s system works with both the Western and Eastern cultural groups. Table 1 Ekman and Friesen’s Facial Expressions Depicting Human Emotions Happiness
Sadness
• Happiness is associated with corners of lips drawn back and up. • The mouth may or may not be parted, with teeth exposed or not. • A wrinkle runs down from nose to the outer edge beyond the lip corners.
• The inner corners of the eyebrows are drawn up. • The skin below the eyebrow gets triangulated, and • Corners of the lips are down or trembling.
Anger
Fear
• Anger is related to • Eye brows raised and eyes giving a hard stare and may have drawn together a bulging appearwith wrinkles in ance. the centre of forehead. • Lips are firmly • Mouth opens pressed together with corners straight with lips tensed or down or lips slightly and open as if shouting. drawn back. • The nostril may be dilated.
Adapted from Ekman and Friesen (1975)
Results The classroom practices found to be disruptive to classroom interactions were: students giving choral responses, limited student participation in the classroom activities, and prolonged group activity discussion as evident in cogen 1 following lesson on class X Physics Syllabus (Lesson 1). One intervention strategy arising from the cogen, the teacher’s use of encouragement, was implemented. The analyses reveal that this intervention strategy improved students’ participation in the lesson, time spent on group activities, and reduced choral responses. Choral responses refer to more than one student responding to a teacher’s question or sharing views simultaneously. Video analysis showed a very high frequency of choral responses recorded (i.e., 60 times) in lesson 1. On several occasions, the tutor became irritated when students gave choral responses. In particular, she became irritated when two students responded to her question in chorus as evident from Figure 1. The analysis of her facial expression when she uttered “one at a time” shows the tutor giving a hard stare, with brows drawn together, and nostrils dilated (Figure 1). In the context of the classroom interactions described here, the facial expressions of students and their tutor are indicative
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of the presence of anger (see Table 1; Ekman & Friesen, 1975). The figure also shows the tutor with index fingers of both hands pointing at students which is an indication of a warning in the Bhutanese context when students are up to some mischief.
Figure1. Tutor warning students to speak “one at a time” Moreover, Student 7 and Student 13 also expressed in the cogen that the tutor should discourage students from giving choral responses (Cogen 1). Another undesirable aspect of lessons as perceived by the cogen participants was the limited student participation during learning experiences, referring to the low number of students engaging in classroom activities. Video analysis revealed that only 14% of students participated in the classroom activities in lesson 1. In this class of 60 minute duration, only 4 (3 male and 1 female) out of 28 students contributed to the discussion. This also concerned the tutor during cogen 1 when she expressed that “more students should participate in the discussions.” Student 7 also pointed out that “specifically female students should open up” (Cogen 1). The prolonged group activity refers to time spent by the students in pairs or small groups attending to a particular task in the class beyond the stipulated time given by the tutor. As evident from the video analysis, 60% (37 minutes) of the lesson (lesson 1) time was spent on students’ group activity discussion. Furthermore, in cogen 1, Student 7 expressed that prolonged group activity discussion affected them as “we have to wait for the rest of the groups to finish their task. We are left with nothing to do other than gossip or go to sleep”. The same apprehension was also raised by Student 1 who said “I also finished my task early and had to wait for my friends to finish. That made me drowsy and sleepy” (Cogen 1). In summary, the data analysed in relation to lesson 1 and cogen 1 revealed that most students preferred to refrain from participating in class discussions, a high frequency of choral responses were recorded, and the group activity discussion was prolonged. The cogen was used as a platform to co-create interventions for the teacher to try in the next lesson that would attempt to transform classroom practices. The first cogen, for example, generated the intervention strategy where the tutor would try to offer students
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greater encouragement to participate in class discussions. The tutor agreed that she would encourage more students to participate in the classroom activities through support and reinforcement for/of both verbal and non-verbal contributions, as well as by creating a favourable classroom atmosphere for them to share their views openly. It was also agreed that the tutor would dissuade students from answering in chorus any questions with low cognitive demand. Beginning with the next available lesson (i.e., lesson 2), the tutor encouraged students to participate in the classroom activities by providing opportunities to ask questions, express views without fear of ridicule, reinforcing their responses through verbal and nonverbal cues, and by being more receptive to their responses. For instance, Figure 2 shows the tutor encouraging Student 23 to speak. The tutor’s body is aligned towards the students and she is reinforcing the student’s response by nodding her head and using the emotive expression good as evident in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Evidence of mutual focus as the tutor encourages Student 23 to speak. Similarly, the tutor also supported other students by patiently listening to and acknowledging their responses with head nods and verbal reinforcement, suggesting mutual focus and shared emotion between her and her students as shown in Figure 3a and Figure 3b.
Figure 3. The tutor smiles as she maintains eye contact with Student 13 (a) and the tutor with shared mutual focus as she listens to Student 27 (b).
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The tutor also dissuaded the students from giving choral responses. For instance, the tutor advised students to raise their hands if they wanted to share their views or solicit an answer to a question. The post-intervention data showed improvement in students’ participation, reduction in the frequency of choral responses, and a reduction in the time spent on the group activity. The number of participants increased to 32% in lesson 2, (post-intervention) from 14% in lesson 1. The number of choral responses decreased from 60 instances in lesson 1 to 38 instances in lesson 2. The time spent on student group activities also improved by 50% from 37 minutes in lesson 1 to 19 minutes in lesson 2, even though the group task in lesson 1 (familiarising themselves with class IX syllabus) was more familiar to them than the task in lesson 2 (reading an article about a novel topic) (Figure 4).
c"
K P V G T X G P V K Q P
d"
e
c
d
e"
c"?"Ejqtcn"tgurqpug"d ? Itqwr"cevkxkv{"vkog"e ? Pq0"qh"rctvkekrcpvu"""
Figure 4. Classroom indicators before and after the tutor’s use of encouragement as an intervention strategy. Figure 4 presents classroom indicators before and after the tutor’s use of encouragement as an intervention strategy. For ease of identification, the parameters are represented by the letters a–c (Figure 4). More specifically, a – indicates choral response, b – refers to group activity time management, and c – relates to number of students participating in the classroom activities. The findings indicated by the quantitative data represented in Figure 4 were supported by qualitative data gathered from the video clips of classroom proceedings. For instance, Figure 5 shows students raising hands to draw the teacher’s attention rather than calling out randomly. More specifically, students (S13, S3, and S14) show hands to confirm queries from the tutor in Figure 5a and Student 8 was seeking the teacher’s attention to
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share his views as evident from Figure 5b.
Figure 5. (a) Students (S13, S3, and S14) confirming tutor’s queries through show of hands and (b) Student 8 raises his hand to draw the tutor’s attention. The above claims were also confirmed by the tutor’s observations during subsequent cogens. The tutor noticed the cogen participants were supportive of one another and encouraged other students’ participation in the class. As the tutor recalled: What I liked in lesson 3 was everybody was participating in the discussion. Last time they were so quiet. They will not open up unless coerced. But today they have opened up but girls still need to open up. I encouraged more girls to speak up. (Cogen 2)
Analysis of the video recordings also showed that female participation rates increased as the lessons progressed. In lesson 1, only one female out of 10 participated whereas in lessons 2 and 3 the number of females who participated increased to three and five, respectively. One of the students (i.e., S12) attributed her participation in lesson 3 to her tutor’s encouragement, as declared: We felt encouraged to participate in the class (lesson 3) when we were told that following the discussion of cogen 2, girls were required to speak out more in the class. Therefore, we discussed in our groups that from now on we should participate more in the class. (Cogen 3)
This comment was supported by the tutor, who said: Girls were more prepared this time as following cogen 2 they were encouraged to partake in the class discussion. So they must have prepared in advance putting together all their energy. It has become compulsory for them to ask question as if they don’t ask then, I will ask them to ask questions (he…he…he…). (Cogen 3)
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These supportive practices were recognised by Student 10 in cogen 4 who said: I was very happy yesterday (lesson 4) because most of the students got the opportunity to think and raise their voice in the class. That was a positive experience for us. What I like about madam is she does not criticise or look down on us even if our answer is wrong; instead she reinforced us and encouraged us to come up with more answers. I think she feels happy when we participate irrespective of any answer we give and she does not get annoyed. (Cogen 5)
Conclusion Cogen was employed as an intervention and as a research method for supporting claims obtained from video data. The cogens were structured so that all student participants and their tutor could speak openly with the aim of assuming collective responsibility to improve the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom. During these discussions both the tutor and students became aware of their beliefs and feelings about their conduct, teaching and the classroom. These discussions helped mitigate the power differences between students and the tutor, and to help find solutions regarding what was to happen in subsequent lessons. Following cogen, the participants identified intervention strategies to improve student interaction such as students contributing to classroom discussion more frequently and a reduction in choral responses to the tutor’s questions and make learning of science enjoyable and a positive experience for the students. Cogen not only diagnosed what worked and what did not work in the class through open discussions between the tutor and selected students, but also provided a forum in which intervention strategies were generated to improve the classroom practices. The tutor built on the activities that were positive for the class and introduced interventions to improve the success of other activities. Numerous interventions were recommended during the first cogen, however, in this study only one intervention (i.e., teacher encouragement) is tried in an effort to address the activities that were deleterious for the class. The implementation of teacher encouragement as an intervention strategy improved student participation in class activities and their conduct in the classroom. Cogen helped improve classroom practices because interventions were coproduced, and these worked. By working together with her students through cogen, Pelmo (the tutor) became aware of the structures of various positive activities (e.g., encouraging students to open up, reinforcing students by acknowledging their responses and efforts, group activity, creating conducive classroom environment and dissuading students from giving choral response). The classroom interactions became successful only when the tutor and students collaborated during the positive activities and when the class was not dominated by the tutor.
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In conclusion, cogens were successful in helping the tutor and students diagnose classroom activities and as well as in generating interventions to deal effectively with those activities that were deleterious to the class. Cogens also provided a platform for the tutor and students to interact openly. Over the course of the interactions, students felt increasingly free to create successful interactions. The findings of this study point to the potential for students to reproduce similar practices in their own classes in future.
References Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1975). Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from facial clues. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Emdin, C. (2008). The three C’s for urban science education. Phi Delta Kappan, 8, 772– 775. Rinchen, S. (2014). A study of the emotional climate of a science education class for pre-service teachers in Bhutan. Unpublished thesis for the Doctor of Philosophy, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Tobin, K., & Roth, W.-M. (2006). Teaching to learn: A view from the field. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense. Tobin, K., Seiler, G., & Walls, E. (1999). Reproduction of social class in the teaching and learning of science in urban high schools. Research in Science Education, 29, 171– 187.
_______________ About the author SONAM RINCHEN is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Science, Samtse College of Education, Royal University of Bhutan. He has PhD in Education from Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Currently he is teaching undergraduate and post graduate students at Samtse College of Education. He also coordinates research activities at the college in the capacity of Dean of Research and Internal Linkages His research interests include teacher education and women studies. He is also interested in the study of emotions and emotional climate of science classrooms both at the school and university level.
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Bodhisattva Leadership: The Leadership of Selfless Beings TASHI GYELTSHEN
Abstract
This article offers a view of leadership based on the teachings of Buddha Gautama who taught that happiness can be achieved by realising the Four Noble Truths and following the Noble Eight-fold path. However, many centuries after His death, Buddhist principles diversified to include universality of emptiness, altruism and compassion of Mahayana Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Central to Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism is the idea of the Bodhisattva, whose leadership approaches are deliberated in this article. The contribution of this article lies in the provision of an alternate view on leadership to the generally dominating Western understanding of leadership, thus enriching the cross-cultural understanding of leadership. Some unique features of Bodhisattva leadership include its endeavour to bring happiness to the members and the organisation.
Key words: Bodhisattva leadership, Altruism, Buddha-nature, Mindfulness meditation, Loving-kindness, Compassion, Happiness
Introduction Bodhisattva leadership is based on the teachings of the historical Buddha, Gautama Siddhartha, who lived about 2500 years ago. Over time, Buddhism has branched out into three main branches or yanas (vehicles): Śrāvakayāna, Mahayana (greater vehicle) and Vajrayana (diamond or thunderbolt vehicle). They are also called Southern Buddhism, Eastern Buddhism and Northern or Tibetan Buddhism respectively following their area of predominance (Harvey, 2013; Lopez, 2007). However, despite the difference in time of origin, place of predominance and distinctive features, the line between Mahayana and Vajrayana is thin. While some consider the two branches near similar (Blumenthal, 2013; Duckworth, 2013; Harvey, 2013; Wangchuk, 2014), others view them distinctly different (Lopez, 1995; Ray, 2001). Over the two-and-a-half millennia, Buddhism has spread and become the main force behind the Oriental culture, especially within the Indus and Hindu Kush to Kyoto and Java (Conze, 1981; Lopez, 1995). It has influenced the cultural life in the Śrāvakayā countries, such as Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Sri Lanka, and Mahayana countries, such as China, Japan, Koreas, Vietnam and Singapore. Similarly, Vajrayana has influenced the life of people of Tibet (China), Bhutan, Mongolia, Nepal, North India and a few republics of Russia such as Buryat, Tuva and Kalmykia (Harvey, 2000, 2013; Keown, 1996). Besides the geographical locations, the three main branches differ in their leadership principles. While Śrāvakayāna emphasise Arhats (Sanskrit Pratimoksha; Tibetan Sosotharpa) (divine beings who have gained liberation from the Samsara or realm of suffering through their individual effort and do not intend to be reborn), Mahayana and Vajrayana stress on Bodhisattvas (Tib. Jangchubsempa) (Barr, 2004; Ray, 2001). Bodhisattvas are di-
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vine persons who have gained enlightenment but have, through their altruistic and compassionate motivations, decided to defer entering Nirvana for the benefit of all other sentient beings (Blumenthal, 2013; Boisseleir, 1994; Powers, 2013; Rinpoche, 2009). However, besides sharing similarities with Mahayana, Vajrayana has distinctive features such as chanting mantra, visualisation, elaborate rituals systems, unbroken teacher-student lineage (esoteric) and inclusion of the fourth refuge of guru, as immediate leader, in addition to Buddha, dharma and sangha. This article will consider Mahayana and Vajrayana leadership principles of Bodhisattva leadership, which offer an elaborate and unique view.
Bodhisattva Leadership While Western leadership emphasises the fulfilment of organisational goals, Bodhisattva leadership strives to achieve happiness of the members in the ever-changing world (Das, 1998; Woollard, 2012). This leadership understands the ultimate goal of happiness to be peace of mind and doing the right thing using all the positive energy in the circumstances that are constantly changing as a result of cause-condition-effect or dependent arising phenomenon (Barr, 2004). There are no chance occurrences, but everything happens due to a cause and produces corresponding effects (Das, 1998). As such, unlike Western culture that holds individuals as discreet and fixed entities, this leadership views individuals as transitory and changing all the time depending upon causes and conditions (Rarick, 2008). Thus, leadership is a process of facilitating the members’ happiness through Right View that leads to Right Action in a constantly changing world. Bodhisattva leadership is viewed at three levels: leadership of the self, leadership of the organisation, and leadership of the interconnected world (Kemavuthanon & Duberley, 2009; van den Muyzenberg, 2011). In the leadership of the self, the Buddha taught that the best way for a ruler to reign over his country is to first rule himself (Rarick, 2008). Leaders need to be clear about who they are and what their goals are. They need to be mindful that their leadership should result in the happiness of the members, therefore avoid indulging in activities that benefit themselves only, such as fame, power or material wealth, and avoid unethical and immoral thoughts and actions. In the leadership of the organisation, unlike Western leadership which strives to achieve organisational vision through technological and material advancement (Marques, 2012), Bodhisattva leadership attempts to bring happiness in the members and at the workplace. It argues that making profit should not be the sole vision of the organisation but rather a condition of survival of the organisation and not an end in itself. If the organisation’s purpose is to make profit, it is comparable to the purpose of life as eating to keep us alive (van den Muyzenberg, 2011). However, money and material wealth need not be seen as evil as long as they are gained through honesty and diligence, that is through Right Livelihood (Tideman, 2011). In fact, financial and material wealth enable meeting the ba-
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sic needs for survival in order to do good for others and to practise generosity that results in happiness of others (Tideman, 2011). In the leadership of the inter-connected world, leaders attempt to bring happiness to everyone affected by their leadership (Kemavuthanon & Duberley, 2009). It emphasises the principle of cause-condition-effect (Lay jum drey) or causality. Leaders attempt to lead in a manner that produces maximum happiness in the society and the world at large, and value the principles of selflessness, compassion and interdependence (Kawanami, 2012). Selflessness in Bodhisattva leadership is the absence of distinction between ourselves and everyone else (Rarick, 2008). While the concept of ‘self’ is central to the Western culture, this leadership strives for the happiness of others through altruistic thoughts and actions. Selflessness and altruism are exemplified by the Buddha’s act of giving up his comfortable princely life, leaving behind his wife, son, parents, kingdom and people and going in search of truth that benefits all the sentient beings.
Theoretical Bodhisattva Leadership Model Unlike in Western leadership, there exists very little literature in Buddhism that explicitly deals with leadership despite its being practised over thousands of years (see Tideman, 2012). This article presents a comprehensive theoretical leadership model (see Figure 1) following the understanding of Bodhisattva leadership principle gleaned from limited literature. The model illustrates that the process of Bodhisattva leadership begins with the buddha-nature, incorporates Bodhisattva leadership approaches and styles (Rinpoche, 2009; Tideman, 2012), and ends with the fulfilment of happiness, which is every single person’s goal in living (Ricard, 2007). The theoretical model explains that Bodhisattva leadership has four main components. They include i).The belief in the presence of the innate leadership potential in every person in the form of the buddha-nature and the mindfulness practices that result in a selfless mind; ii). The adoption of three levels of courage or motivation described metaphorically as King, Boatman and Shepherd leadership approaches, iii).The four leadership styles of Zhiwa (Pacification), Gyepa (Enrichment), Wang (Magnetisation) and Drakpo (Subjugation), and iv). The demonstration of externalised positive behaviours that result in happiness. The whole process of Bodhisattva leadership is aimed at achieving happiness in the members and at the organisation as evident in Figure 1 below.
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Bodhisattva Leadership motivations/ approaches Innate leadership King potential Boatman Shepard Internalised leadership qualities
Pacification Enrichment Magnetisation Subjugation
Mindfulness Practices
Bodhisattva Leadership styles
Compassionate and Altruistic mind
Externalised leadership behaviours Kindness Compassion Sympathetic joy Equanimity Generosity Discipline Patience Diligence Concentration Wisdom
Goal of leadership Happiness
Figure 1. Bodhisattva leadership model. The model asserts that Bodhisattva leadership begins with the view of the presence of the buddha-nature in very sentient being (person in this case) (Berkwitz, 2012; Duckworth, 2013; Rinpoche, 2002; Schmidt-Leukel, 2006). The buddha-nature is a pure and wholesome core that has the fundamental essence or innate potential to gain enlightenment (Berkwitz, 2012; Hayes, 2013; Rinpoche, 2009; Sponberg, 2013). It is better explained through its Tibetan name: Desheg Nyingpo (buddha essence) and the Sanskrit name: Tathagatagarbha (Tathagata is Buddha, and garbha is covering or embryo). Though the innate potential to become a Buddha exists in every individual, it is covered or hidden by obstacles, such as delusion, defilement, ignorance, anger and greed (Grosnick, 1995; Sponberg, 2013; Tsuchiya, 2003), which are results of unenlightened mind (Harvey, 2013). The buddha-nature is also called Rigpa – an innermost essence hidden within our ordinary mind, which is primordial, pure, pristine awareness that is intelligent, cognizant, radiant and always awake, whereas our ordinary mind is dualistic, grasping, unstable, confused, chaotic and undisciplined (Rinpoche, 2002). Unless these obscurations of the ordinary mind are removed, the buddha-nature cannot shine, but rather remains dormant, comparable to a sleeping Buddha (Das, 1998). In terms of leadership, it is understood that unless one realises the presence of leadership potential and make attempts to gain leadership knowledge, hone leadership skills and engage in mindfulness practices, one cannot become an effective leader. The concept of the buddha-nature is explained through several analogies, such as a kernel covered by a husk, a secret chamber of a house, gold inside a pit of waste, or honey guarded by angry bees (Grosnick, 1995). Unless the husk is removed, the secret chamber discovered, the waste cleaned, or the bees tackled, the buddha-nature cannot be realised (Grosnick, 1995). An example of the buddha-nature is Guru Padma Jungney
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(Lotus-born), a renowned Vajrayana or Tantric master (Khyentse, 2014). Padma Jungney is the buddha-nature or the essence of the historical Buddha himself born out of the lotus flower that grew from the garbha of dirty and stinking marshland/pond. However, despite the filthy conditions of garbha, Padma Jungney does not bear any stain of impurity (Hayes, 2013; Khyentse, 2014; Tsuchiya, 2003). At another level, the buddha-nature is compared to pollen inside a flower bud which is exposed only when the cover or garbha of the flower petals open up (Grosnick, 1995). The innate buddha-nature is awakened and realised through mindfulness practices, such as meditation. Mindfulness, which is the seventh step in the Noble Eight-fold Path to enlightenment in Buddhism, is a skill of being natural and aware of the present moment without grasping or denying and judging thoughts and emotions or simply noticing the way things are (Das, 1998; Gondalez, 2012). Mindfulness practitioners report that mindfulness meditation enables greater happiness, satisfaction, better social connection and better control of themselves in their personal and professional lives. In this way, mindful leaders can transform themselves, members and the organisation (Gondalez, 2012). However, in strict spiritual sense, mindfulness is more than a way to find temporary peace, calmness or happiness; but it aims to realise the nature of the mind and the ultimate bliss of Nirvana (Khyentse, 2014). The model explains that mindfulness meditation results in the realisation of the need to help others through a loving, compassionate and selfless mind. Love is wishing others happiness, while compassion is a motivation that others do not suffer. Selflessness is discarding or at least minimising the prominence of “I” in the process of leaders’ execution of their leadership roles. Regarding selflessness, the Buddha taught that the leader as a person is not important; rather the leader’s leadership beliefs and behaviours are important (Harvey, 1991, 2013). Similarly, He taught that it is not important to venerate a person, but the wisdom that person teaches (Khyentse, 2007). Even about his own teaching, the Buddha explicitly reminded that followers should not follow His teaching simply upon hearing; rather, they should reflect and meditate, then follow if they find it meaningful (Khyentse, 2007; Marques, 2012; Rinpoche, 2009).Therefore, leaders’ transcendence of “I” emphasises the welfare of members and others, and the leaders’ role-modelling encourages members to become selfless (Tideman, 2012) resulting in a collectivist society where leaders’ identity is linked to their association with members (Rarick, 2008). For instance, selflessness is exemplified in the Buddha’s teaching that all the great rivers on reaching the ocean lose their former names and identities and are reckoned simply as the ocean (Rarick, 2008). The second component of the model pertains to the three approaches of leadership, metaphorically represented as the three levels of courage or motivation of King, Boatman and Shepherd (Rinpoche, 2009; Tideman, 2012). It is indicated that leaders’ altruism and compassion is less in the King leadership approach, more is the Boatman
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leadership approach, and boundless in the Shepherd leadership approach as suggested by the process of arousing Bodhicitta (Tib. Jangchubsem), the ‘mind of enlightened’ or Bodhisattva mind (Rinpoche, 2009, p. 218) in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism (Ray, 2001; Tideman, 2012). Bodhisattva leadership prioritises members’ welfare over their own welfare by liberating others before liberating themselves from the samsara (Rinpoche, 2009; Tideman, 2012). However, the King leadership, which prioritises liberation of the self, may seem contradictory if not understood correctly. In the King leadership approach, it is the leaders who accomplishes the state of Arahat (Tib. Drachompa) and then makes it possible for members to achieve the task. The historical Buddha held a view of “When I am enlightened, all are enlightened” (Das, 1998, p. 17). It is similar to the view that you help others when you help yourself. In Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, liberation of the self is the first step that enable liberation of others (Das, 1998; Rarick, 2008). For instance, after gaining enlightenment, the Buddha taught and dedicated 45 years of his life working tirelessly for the welfare of all sentient beings. In the Boatman leadership approach, the leader and the members reach the shore together. As one practises Dharma, s/he also teaches and leads sentient beings to enlightenment (Rinpoche, 2009). The reincarnate lamas (Buddhist priests) are considered to be following the Boatman leadership approach. In a more practical sense, the leader’s wellbeing is accomplished as the members and the organisation achieve happiness. In the Shepherd leadership approach, the leader is selfless and focuses on the well-being of the members. It is only after the members’ well-being is fulfilled that the leader considers his/ her well-being. This approach is summed up in a stanza from Bodhisattvacharyavatara (The guide to the Bodhisattva’s way of life) by Santideva (Tib.Zhiwalha), an eighth century Indian Buddhist monk: As long as space endures And as long as sentient beings remain May I, too, abide To dispel the miseries of the world (Blumenthal, 2013, p. 87)
Further, the Shepherd leadership approach is exemplified by the story of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of compassion. One version of the story says: Many eons ago, Avalokiteshvara took a vow that he will rest, or in other words, attain enlightenment only after he has liberated all the sentient beings from the realms of suffering. And he took on the task and worked diligently for a long time. At one time, through his buddha eye – the enlightened eye that sees beyond time and distance (Tsuchiya, 2003), – he assessed how many were liberated and how many more were there to be liberated. He saw he had liberated many and, at the same time, there were countless more to be liberated. At this point, he became discouraged and nearly broke his vow. He had also vowed that if he broke it, his body be shattered into a thousand pieces.
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So when he got discouraged, his body got shattered into a thousand pieces. However, through the blessing of Amitabha buddha, his shattered body transformed into eleven heads (to hear more cries of suffering beings), one thousand eyes (to see more sufferers) and one thousand hands (to aid liberation of multitude sufferers) simultaneously. Thus, he continues to liberate sentient beings (Situpa, 2009).
However, leaders adopting the Shepherd leadership approach need to have an understanding and knowledge of the King and the Boatman leadership approaches as the essence of these two approaches act as the foundation of the third (Powers, 2013; Ray, 2001). Moreover, despite the differences in the motivation, all the three leadership approaches aim to attain enlightenment and help others and to achieve organisational goals. The Bodhisattva leadership model suggests that the three approaches of leadership can be executed through the employment of external behaviours of the Four Enlightened Activities. Zhiwa or Pacification is leaders’ attempt to pacify or reduce inconveniences and obstacles for peace, success and happiness of members and organisation. It can also mean that leaders remain calm, focused and steadily mindful of the inherent goodness of the result of actions, such as actively listening and making members feel safe rather than reacting to situations (Khandro, 2007; Lewis, 2012). In the second style of Gyepa or Enrichment, the leaders, through their selfless motivation and altruistic mind, attempt to help and benefit members through empowering them to seek alternative views, which in turn, transform problematic situations and enables exchange of ideas, thereby enriching everybody’s knowledge and experience (Lewis, 2012). Enrichment leadership style facilitates organisations’ overall success and prosperity and members’ happiness through the achievement of the organisational goals (Odzer, 2011). The third leadership style, Wang or Magnetisation, is the leaders’ ability to make members feel attracted to the leaders and to the organisation and induce willingness in members to follow the leaders (Wangpo, 2006). In this sense, Magnetisation relates to the charisma or idealised influence in the Transformational leadership model. Charismatic leaders, through their power, have profound and extraordinary effects on their followers (Bass,1985). Similarly, in Magnetisation, members exhibit sincere respect that has sprung from their pure devotion and dedication to leaders’ exhibition of motivation and inspiration. In Magnetisation, leaders need to be aware of various means and tools available to bring maximum benefit in any particular situation (Odzer, 2011). However, Magnetisation is sometimes understood as coercion (Dalton, 2011), and bears some shade of the use of force and paves way to Subjugation style (Khandro, 2007). The last of the four leadership styles is Drakpo or Subjugation. It may sound unbecoming of Bodhisattvas to engage in such kind of activity (Lewis, 2012; Odzer, 2011), yet subjugation and other transgressions are accepted in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism (Dalton, 2011; Powers, 2013) if they are motivated by good intention and compassion, and performed through skilful means (Schmidt-Leukel, 2006). There are varying view-
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points on the understanding and employment of Subjugation. Rinpoche (2003) and Khandro (2007) understand subjugating as annihilating confusion and obstacles, while Odzer (2011) points out that it is the subjugation of the evils which, with bad intentions, hinder the functioning and progress of an organisation. Dalton (2011) and Odzer (2011) remind that subjugating is an option if the other three styles do not work, or when the leaders know that the other three activities will not be effective with the followers. Intention is key in Subjugation leadership style. The leaders’ mind should not be clouded with negative emotions, such as hatred, greed, lust, jealousy or for selfish gain, but must radiate utmost dedication, compassion and wisdom (Dalton, 2011; Tideman, 2012; Wangpo, 2006). Subjugation style is comparable to a mother’s compassion and care while spanking her children for their undesirable actions (Rinpoche, 2009). There are numerous stories, such as Marpa’s ruthless treatment of Milarapa (Kapstein, 2013; Trungpa, 1995), Tilopa’s behaviour with Naropa (Ray, 2001), and Compassionate boatman (Harvey, 2000) in which Subjugation was employed effectively. Another example of Subjugation style of leadership is associated with Guru Padma Sambhava who subjugated many evil beings and demons in north India, Bhutan, Nepal, Sikkim and Tibet that were harming the people (Bhutia, n.d.; Odzer, 2011). Examples of this style in Bhutan are Padma Sambhava’s subjugation of the devilish snake at Gomphu Kora, the evil spirits at Taktsang, and the spirit Shelging Karpo who harmed king Sindhu Raja in Bumthang. At other times, he varied his style. He used Zhiwa (Pacification) and Gyepa (Enrichment) to settle the differences between king Sindhu Raja of Bumthang and king Nawoche of Assam. In addition, there are examples where Bodhisattva leaders generally employ Zhi Gye Wang Drak in their leadership. They adapt their leadership styles depending on the situation and the type of followers. The Rudra Myth summarises the employment of Subjugation when the other three styles fail to bring the desired effect in the members and the organisation: Rudra was, in one of his previous lives, a prince named Black Liberator, who, along with his servant Denpak, became disciples of a monk named Invincible Youth. However, the prince and his servant radically differed in their interpretation of the teacher’s teaching. Black Liberator became angry and banished his servant. He then went to his teacher, who confirmed that the servant’s understanding was correct, upon which he banished his teacher too. Then on he plunged into evil deeds as a result of bad karma and wrong views. He lived in charnel ground and indulged in innumerable hedonistic deeds. Consequently, he was born and reborn in different hells and suffered for many eons. However, after endless suffering, he was born to a promiscuous woman who died in childbirth. Infant Rudra was kept on his dead mother’s breast at the cemetery. However, over time, he grew strong and powerful, became leader of all evil beings, and ultimately overpowered powerful gods, such as Indra, Brahma, Vishnu and Hayagriva (Tib. Tamdrin). He committed all the cruel and sinful deeds imaginable, and was feared by all.
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All the Tathagatas or Buddhas gathered to discuss how they could correct Rudra. They ultimately decided to follow the Four Enlightened Activities to overcome him. First, they sent peaceful emanation of Sakyamuni Buddha, but to no avail. Second, they dispatched Hayagriva to use Enrichment/ Enhancement, but was threatened and driven away. Third, they sent Vajrakumara (Tib. Dorji Shoenu) to employ Magnetisation/Coercion who succeeded in purifying Rudra’s palace and coercing the demonesses and Rudra’s queen in his absence, thus paving way to Subjugation. Last, Heruka, through the empowerment of host of Hayagriva, began taming Rudra in earnest. Rudra responded by employing his demonic horde and his magical power to combat fierce Heruka, but Heruka surpassed Rudra’s power and ultimately defeated him. Heruka plunged his trident into Rudra’s chest and swallowed him up. Rudra got purified in Heruka’s belly and experienced momentary bliss of the Buddhafield, and at the same time, saw all the sufferings he has caused with his cruel deeds. The next moment, Heruka ejected him out in the manner one ejects faeces. Rudra pleaded Heruka to liberate him swearing allegiance, and told his entire retinue of the errors and prayed for forgiveness. Heruka taught Rudra about his karma and destroyed him only to reconstitute him in a completely purified form in preparation for initiation. Rudra was given a new name, Black Excellence (Tib. Legden Nakpo) and appointed as the chief protector of dharma (Dalton, 2011).
The last component of the Bodhisattva leadership model pertains to the demonstration of positive behaviours that align with the Four Immeasurables (kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity) and with the six paramitas or Transcendental Perfections (Powers, 2013; Rinpoche, 2009; Sponberg, 2013). The six paramitas include generosity, discipline, patience, diligence, concentration and wisdom. Cultivation and demonstration of these positive behaviours in the leaders result in the happiness of the members and at the work place as a fruition of the earlier process of the leadership model.
Conclusion Though Buddhism has been practised for thousands of years, Bodhisattva leadership has generally remained at the spiritual level mostly practised by Buddhist adepts and teachers. This article investigated Bodhisattva leadership in order to fully understand it and to relate it to leadership at the secular level. Bodhisattva leadership recognises that it must affect happiness at the three levels of the self, the organisation and the society, all of which are in a constant state of change. It also argues that every individual person has the potential to be a leader, which can be realised and internalised through reflective practices. Bodhisattva leadership stresses selflessness of the leaders, and love, altruism and compassion towards the members. The overall vision of Bodhisattva leadership is to enable peace, prosperity and happiness in the members, the organisation and the world.
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About the author TASHI GYELTSHEN is a senior lecturer at Samtse College of Education under Royal University of Bhutan. Prior to joining the college, he served as a teacher and Principal in two middle secondary schools. His interest in research has enabled him to publish research articles in journals, present papers at a number of national and international conferences, and offer research modules at Bachelors and Masters Degree. He has Master of Education Degree from the University of Technology, Sydney and Doctor of Philosophy from Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. He specialises in academic leadership in higher education and has keen interest in Buddhist-influenced leadership.
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Investigating Chemical Laboratory Safety Based on Students’ Ability to Recognise the Common Laboratory Hazard Symbols DUMCHO WANGDI AND SONAM TSHOMO
Abstract
Teaching of any phenomena that involves scientific investigation and experimentation mostly takes place in the science laboratory using chemicals which poses risks and health hazards to the students. Students as learners should be thoroughly versed in laboratory safety and recognising the substances using the common laboratory hazard symbols. This study attempts to investigate the students’ ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols used in the science laboratory. A survey questionnaire that consisted of 14 items were administered to 166 science students of class IX (n=74) and class X (n=92). The data were analysed by counting the frequency and calculating percentages, arithmetic mean, standard deviation and independent samples t-tests. The findings indicated that the students were not able to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols and have revealed confusions in recognising them. The study also found a statistically significant difference between students’ ability to recognise laboratory hazard symbols with regards to gender for class X students. However, there was no significant difference between students’ recognition level of laboratory hazard symbols of chemicals with respect to the gender for class IX students. Also included in this study is the statistically significant difference found on students’ ability to recognise common laboratory hazard symbols with respect to the grade level.
Key words: Laboratory hazard symbols, Laboratory safety, Science education, Chemicals
Statement of Problem Laboratory safety is often a major concern for many of the schools that offer experiences to the students in scientific investigations and experiments. This is because the science laboratory which usually is an active site for learning also poses potential risks and vulnerability for the students to encounter with accidents. Since accidents are inevitable and unpredictable by nature, threats due to the use of tools, devices, or chemicals while conducting experiments are highly possible in the school science laboratory. It is therefore indispensable to take the necessary precautions and resolve the methods and approaches that can improve the working conditions and minimise possibilities of threats and hazards. One way of ensuring laboratory safety is to educate the students on the hazard symbols used to label the chemicals in the science laboratory. Such form of education not only maximizes students’ familiarity with the chemicals but also introduces them to the potential hazards and threats posed by the chemicals because of an unsafe and careless use. Studies by Anilan (2010), Artdej (2012) and Karapantsios, Boutskou, Touliopoulou and Mavros (2008) have revealed that most of the students were unable to identify the hazard symbols properly and that they were largely confused or ignored reading the symbols labeled on the chemicals in the laboratory. The findings from such studies have motivated the authors in investigating the understanding of laboratory safety by the students in Bhutan,
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as no studies of the similar kind was conducted before in our context. Hence, using a survey questionnaire consisting of 14 hazard symbols modified from the relevant literature, this study was intended to highlight how laboratory safety is understood by the students based on their ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols.
Literature Review The issue of safety is given paramount significance in every sphere of the workplace. In the process of teaching and learning science, it is predominantly employed in the school science laboratory where students are exposed to various chemical substances. It is in the science laboratory that the students are inevitably exposed to potentially dangerous situations (Downs & Gerlovich, 1982). Science laboratories are not only active sites of learning but are also areas of the learning sphere that have potential risks and hazards related to chemicals, fire, explosives, poisons and noxious fumes (Downs & Gerlovich, 1982). The chemicals to which students are exposed may be combustible, caustic, flammable, toxic, and have health or environment hazards (Anilan, 2010). Hence, the laboratory safety is a matter of concern which must be given due consideration. Generally, in any form of laboratory whether it is biological, chemical or radiological, it uses chemicals that are either themselves hazardous or become hazardous due to their reaction. Under such circumstances, it is essential to provide a safe working environment for the employees or prevent damage to the wider environment by identifying the hazards and controlling probable risks (Can, Aksay & Orhan, 2015; Karapantsios, Boutskou, Touliopoulou & Mavros, 2008). Most of the laboratory injuries can be prevented by using the proper safety equipment or by giving proper trainings to the teachers and administrators (Stroud, Stallings & Korbusieski, 2007). However, for substantial reduction of laboratory hazards in the school, one viable approach to enhance chemical safety and reduce potential laboratory risks is by training students to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols at the outset of their science education. One primary objective of establishing science laboratories in the schools is to create an environment where theoretical information can be put into a concrete hands-on practice. When students are engaged into such laboratorial process, it can aid them in developing capacities to execute scientific investigations and inquiry using a scientific approach and understanding. Science and technology laboratories is one environment where student-centered learning is generated and learning by doing becomes the main focus (Can et al., 2015). The role of laboratory work both in and outside of students’ regular science classrooms is highlighted to institute more “active” elements in science education (Greulich et al., 2015). In a working environment where excellence is pursued, satisfactory safety climate and performance are equally a necessary characteristic (Wu, Li, Chen & Shu, 2008). To this view, many studies have investigated the educational effectiveness
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of laboratory works in science education in enabling the realisation of goals related to cognitive, affective and practicality (Hofstein & Mamlok-Naaman, 2007; Tamir, 1976). Studies like Hofstein and Lunetta (2004) and Hofstein and Mamlok-Naaman (2007) have established the significant effects of laboratory work on students’ achievement in science education besides developing positive attitudes and interests towards science. Also through the knowledge of chemical safety, students become more aware of risk assessment and the consequences of certain personal actions in everyday laboratory situations (Carpenter, Kolodny & Harris, 1991). The principle of laboratory safety should not be confined basically to the firm adherence to regulations, but has to be largely a result of attitude and commitment. And the fundamental step to develop this attitude and commitment is a proper and effective education on safety issues. In the long run, it will be the laboratory safety that will occupy a crucial place in an academic setting because it is the site where future workers are trained (Karapantsios et al., 2008). If the students have proper education on laboratory safety, the degree of hazard and frequency of potential risks can be minimised. The occurrence of laboratory accidents does not indicate that they are unavoidable. In the schools where staff are trained and students are well educated on adhering to correct laboratory safety protocols, the laboratory experience can be both safe and rewarding (Stroud et al., 2007). Many of the untimely laboratory misfortunes are due to lack of or inappropriate safety equipment, outdated facilities, failure of new facilities to meet the required standards, poor air quality and overcrowding in the laboratory (Stroud et al., 2007). Although the magnitude of error is not strongly related to its consequence and it depends on the situation, in some cases a gross error may yield trivial results while at times a minor slip might cause a disaster (Pitt, 1988). In fact, what is normally accepted as a correct action and followed as a routine safety measure can also be dangerous and lead to accidents (Karapantsios et al., 2008; Pitt, 1988). This implies that accidents do not simply happen but rather are caused by what people do and do not do (Karapantsios et al., 2008). Science laboratory safety programmes should not be overlooked but instilled in students as an integral part of instruction (Stroud et al., 2007). Thus, as students participate in hands-on science instructions involving potentially dangerous chemicals, both parents and schools expect safe environments for the students through the role of science teachers as they are the frontline of defense in avoiding laboratory injuries (Gallion, Samide & Wilson, 2015; Stroud et al., 2007). The issues of laboratory safety and health particularly for the elementary science programmes are as imperative as any other science subjects for it being a ground to build precautionary measures in eliminating or minimising risks before they pose a threat (Can et al., 2015). This study therefore is intended to investigate the chemical laboratory safety based on students’ ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols.
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Scope of the Study Although the issue of science laboratory safety is given a paramount significance in everyday science teaching in the Bhutanese schools, there is no research conducted on laboratory safety in Bhutan. Hence, this study which is the first of its kind to investigate chemical laboratory safety based on students’ ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols is believed to contribute in offering insight into our students understanding of laboratory safety. To investigate and achieve this objective, a survey questionnaire was administered to 166 Middle Secondary School students of class IX (n=74) and class X (n=92) respectively. This study attempts to answer the following research questions: i) What is the recognition level of students about chemical laboratory safety based on their ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols? ii) Is there a significant difference of students’ recognition level of laboratory hazard symbols and gender? iii) Is the students’ recognition level of common laboratory hazards affected by the grade level?
Research Design and Methodology A survey research was employed to investigate Middle Secondary School students’ ability to recognie the common laboratory hazard symbols. The participants comprised 166 students from class IX (n=74) and class X (n=92). The survey questionnaire was used to investigate the students’ scientific understanding of laboratory hazard symbols. The questionnaire was developed by compiling the common laboratory safety symbols labeled in ‘Science Laboratory Management’ provided as a guidebook for schools in Bhutan. An additional updated symbols were also reviewed from relevant literature such as Anilan (2010), Artdej (2012) and (Karapantsios et al. 2008), making a total of 14 symbols. A sample of the questionnaire item used in the study is shown below: Direction: Write the name of the laboratory hazard symbol (a – e) from the list given in the box below.
Oxidizing, Explosives, Health hazard, Highly Inflammable, Toxic or very toxic
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a) …………
b)……………
c)……..………
d)………..….
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e)…………….…
Validity and Reliability The instruments used for this study were validated by experts who have over five years of experience in teaching science and chemistry particularly for Middle and Higher Secondary Schools in Bhutan. After considering their opinions and suggestions, an index of the Item-Objective Congruence (IOC index) for all the items was determined and found to be more than 0.8 which implied a strong correlation (Rovinelli & Hambleton, 1976) and was suitable for the implementation in the study. The internal consistency (Cronbach alpha) of 0.72 indicated that the items were valid for implementation (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011).
Data Collection A survey questionnaire that comprised of 14 items was administered to 166 students of class IX (n=74) and class X (n=92) to investigate their ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols. The participants were instructed to write the name of the hazard symbols from the list labeled in the box. A list of names for the common laboratory hazard symbols was provided in the box to save the time for the students in recollecting the proper names of the laboratory hazard so they could focus only on labeling what each laboratory hazard symbol stood for. It was also intended to achieve the objective of the study which aimed to investigate the students’ understanding of laboratory safety by their ability to recognise common laboratory symbols.
Data Analysis The data were analysed by giving one point to the response that contained an accurate name for each laboratory hazard symbol. No score was given when the response was inaccurate, blank or contained more than two names for one hazard symbol. This was done to ease the researcher in classifying the recognition level of students in identifying the common laboratory hazard symbols. The frequency, percentage and mean score of the students’ responses were determined.
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Findings and Discussion In this section findings are presented that relate to the three research questions that were posed earlier under the section scope of the study as detailed below in turn. Chemical laboratory safety based on student’s ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols? The summary of students’ responses from Table 1 indicates that the students were not able to adequately recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols. This implies that the students possess minimal understanding of laboratory safety based on their ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols. For instance, only 7.6% and 4.3% of students from class X were able to correctly recognise the hazard symbols of hot temperature and biohazard respectively. Similarly, only 6.8% of students from class IX were able to name the hazard symbol accurately for both hot temperature and bio hazard. This was probably due to the infrequency of use of such symbols in the class although they are commonly introduced along with other symbols. Since all the participants in the study have similar access to laboratorial experiences, the percentage of students who got correct responses could also be a product of chance and not necessarily indicate their knowledge. In some cases, it might also mean that the source of their knowledge is not only the classroom instructions but also a sort of external one. On the contrary, the hazard symbols for explosives and health hazards at 67.4% and 54.3% respectively for class X and 64.9% and 67.6% respectively for class IX have the highest percentage of correct responses in both the grades. The percentage of hazard symbol for highly inflammable at 56.5% for class X is also among the highest in terms of correct responses. Such hazard symbols are often seen and encountered frequently in their daily life such as in health centers (health hazard symbol), on fuel transports (highly inflammable hazard symbol) or in road construction sites (explosives). This shows that the durable form of knowledge on chemical safety and laboratory hazard symbols are also largely the result of everyday and recurrent exposures to the environment. Quite surprisingly, only one student from class IX was able to recognise hazard symbol for toxic or very toxic. In an informal discussion after the survey, the students stated that the hazard symbol used to denote toxic or very toxic is usually the same symbol used to denote danger in electric poles and other electrical appliances. This indicates that the students have not only misidentified the laboratory safety symbols but also confuse their meanings. The findings from this study is consistent with the study conducted by Artdej (2012) where it investigated the Thai undergraduate students’ understanding of laboratory safety using a survey questionnaire and found that a majority of the students misunderstood the definition of chemical hazards and therefore experienced confusion in
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matching chemicals commonly found in school science laboratory. The result also indicated that the students were practically not aware of the chemical safety and the risks they were exposed to, when the chemicals that bore these hazard symbols were not properly recognised. Similar kind of findings were also found by Karapantsios et al., (2008), Anilan (2010), and Artdej (2012). Table 1 Table Showing the Frequency and Percentage of Students’ Responses (n=166) Class X (n=92) Name of laboratory hazard Correct Incorrect symbol answer answer n % n % Explosives 62 67.4 30 32.6 Health hazard 50 54.3 42 45.7 Highly Inflammable 52 56.5 40 43.5 Oxidizing 29 31.5 63 68.5 Toxic or very toxic 17 18.5 75 81.5 Irritant 33 35.9 59 64.1 Cold temperature 40 43.5 52 56.5 Corrosive 45 48.9 47 51.1 Laser beam hazards 15 16.3 77 83.7 Harmful 28 30.4 64 69.6 Dangerous for environment 28 30.4 64 69.6 Radioactive 36 39.1 56 60.9 Hot temperature 7 7.6 85 92.4 Bio Hazard 4 4.3 88 95.7
Class IX (n=74) Correct Incorrect answer answer n % n % 48 64.9 26 35.1 50 67.6 24 32.4 32 43.2 42 56.8 22 29.7 52 70.3 1 1.4 73 98.6 24 32.4 50 67.6 23 31.1 51 68.9 5 6.8 69 93.2 4 5.4 70 94.6 26 35.1 48 64.9 23 31.1 51 68.9 15 20.3 59 79.7 5 6.8 69 93.2 5 6.8 69 93.2
Is there a significant difference of students’ recognition level of laboratory hazard symbols and gender? An independent samples t-test was employed to test whether there is a statistically significant difference among the students in recognising common laboratory hazard symbols based on gender. As shown in Table 2, the independent samples t-test revealed a statistically significant difference between the mean score of male (M=4.14, SD=2.33) and female (M=5.57, SD=3.23) students of class X at p= 0.045, α=0.05. Since the p value was found
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to be less than the alpha level (α=0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected. This indicated that there is a statistically significant difference on recognising common laboratory hazard symbols based on gender for class X students. The female students (M=5.57) were better in recognising the common laboratory hazard symbols when compared to male students (M=4.14). However, for class IX students the ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols do not significantly change depending on their gender (p=0.959). This indicated that the gender does not have a statistically significant effect on class IX students’ ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols. Table 2 T-test to find the Effects of Gender on Students’ Ability to Understand Common Laboratory Hazard Symbols for Class IX and Class X
Class X Class IX
Gender
N
Mean
SD
Male Female Male Female
47 45 30 44
4.14 5.57 3.93 3.75
2.33 3.23 2.53 2.08
P .045 .959
Is the students’ recognition level of common laboratory hazards affected by the grade level? The findings indicated a statistically significant difference between the mean score of class X (M=4.85, SD=2.88) and class IX (M=3.82, SD=2.26) at p= 0.029, α=0.05 as shown in the Table 3. The class X students (M=4.85) were much better than the class IX (M=3.82) students in terms of understanding the chemical safety based on the recognition of the laboratory hazard symbols. For instance, as revealed in the Table 1, while only 81.5% of class X students could not recognise the hazard symbol for toxic or very toxic substance, as large as 98.6% of class IX students were not able to recognise the same symbol correctly. The same result is also observed with respect to the hazard symbols like corrosive and laser beam hazards. While only 48.9% and 16.3% respectively for the two symbols were recognised accurately by the class X students, it was only 6.8% and 5.4% respectively for the same being correctly responded by the class IX students. This might be possibly because the class X students experience more and frequent laboratory visits and exposures when compared to the class IX. In addition, situations like how, when and what kind of laboratory hazard symbols are introduced to the particular class of students might have constituted the difference. In summary, the fact that the common laboratory symbols of the
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chemicals available in the science laboratory recognised accurately by only few students shows that the students are not aware of the chemical laboratory safety and therefore, indicates the vulnerability of encountering several risks (Anilan, 2010). Table 3 T-test to find the Effects of Class on Students’ Ability to Understand Common Laboratory Hazard Symbols
Class X Class IX
N
Mean
SD
P
92 74
4.85 3.82
2.88 2.26
.029
Conclusion This study undertaken in one of the Middle Secondary Schools in Bhutan investigated students’ understanding of laboratory safety based on their ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols. The study concluded that the appropriate labeling of the chemical substances available in the school science laboratory is imperative for the students to be educated about. Such education will not only enable students to understand the nature of the chemicals but also to recognise them based on the proper symbols on the labels, which will notify and remind the students of their potential risk and hazards. Such findings were concluded after an analysis of the survey questionnaire, which revealed that the majority of the class IX (n=74) and class X (n=92) students involved in the study were not able to distinguish the common laboratory hazard symbols. The results indicated that the students were either complacent to learn about the risk or vulnerably unaware of the potential chemical hazards that might cause risk in their life even by the common chemicals present in their school science laboratory. Although many hazard symbols are introduced before conducting any experiments in the science laboratory, the low percentage of students’ recognition level signified the need to explore better ways in making the students more familiarised with it so that they are frequently reminded of the potential chemical dangers. One such viable practice to let the students be cognizant and informed of the common laboratory hazard symbols is by to involve the students in the process of labeling the old faded stocks of the chemicals stored in the laboratory with new and clear hazard symbols. Such endeavor from students will not only let them feel proud and appreciate their contribution to the whole class, but as they take ownership of their own work, it will further help to retain in their memory the symbols labeled by them and even by their friends. The science educators in the school can seriously make a commitment to follow-
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up the findings of such study on what basis and why the students were confused with the common hazard symbols. Such attempts of exploration can not only diagnose the possible reasons of the students’ confusions but also can gather sizeable promising effective means to educate the students on common laboratory hazard symbols. Scheduling the science classes frequently in the science laboratory or designing science lessons incorporating some hands-on drills or simulations on laboratory hazard are more likely to help the students recognise the laboratory hazard symbols more efficiently and accurately.
Limitations and Future Research This study which is possibly the first of its kind to investigate the chemical laboratory safety based on students’ recognition of common laboratory hazard symbols can be a baseline to extend and make it applicable for any grades irrespective of the location of the schools. The findings of the study may not be generalizable to the whole population of students in the country since the study is based only on one Middle Secondary School located in Western Bhutan. Hence, any future research that attempts to conduct a similar study might consider involving large number of schools situated at different geographical locations. The different school setting, (remote or urban), and schools with appropriate science laboratory with proper chemicals could be included in the study. The researcher should also be reminded of including the common laboratory hazard symbols that are only introduced to the students of that grade level. To further consolidate and authenticate the students’ understanding of the common laboratory hazard symbols, future studies might look at the possibility of making provisions in the research instruments for the students to give examples of chemicals for each hazard symbols. The privilege to give examples of chemicals for each hazard symbols was deprived of in this study since it involved only Middle Secondary students whose curriculum requires a fewer laboratory visits as compared to those of Higher Secondary students. The use of qualitative studies involving interviews is also expected to consolidate the findings on students’ ability to recognise the common laboratory hazard symbols.
References Anilan, B. (2010). The recognition level of the students of science education about the hazard symbols of chemicals (Case of ESOGU, Eskisehir). Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 4092–4097. doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.646 Artdej, R. (2012). Investigating undergraduate students’ scientific understanding of laboratory safety. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 5058–5062. doi.org/10.1016/ j.sbspro.2012.06.385 Can, S., Aksay, E. C., & Orhan, T. Y. (2015). Investigation of pre-service science
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teachers’ attitudes towards laboratory safety. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 3131–3136. doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.1051 Carpenter, S. R., Kolodny, R. A., & Harris, H. E. (1991). A novel approach to chemical safety instruction. Journal of Chemical Education, 68(6), 498. Downs, G., & Gerlovich, J. (1982). Development of a science safety manual. Journal of Chemical Education, 59(3), 244. Gallion, L. A., Samide, M. J., & Wilson, A. M. (2015). Demonstrating the importance of cleanliness and safety in an undergraduate teaching laboratory. Journal of Chemical Health and Safety. doi.org/10.1016/j.jchas.2015.01.002 Greulich, H., Flunger, B., Vollmer, C., Nagengast, B., Rehm, M., & Trautwein, U. (2015). Effects of a science center outreach lab on school students’ achievement - Are student lab visits needed when they teach what students can learn at school? Learning and Instruction, 38, 43–52. Hofstein, A., & Lunetta, V. N. (2004). The laboratory in science education: Foundations for the twenty-first century. Science Education, 88(1), 28–54. doi.org/10.1002/ sce.10106 Hofstein, A., & Mamlok-Naaman, R. (2007). The laboratory in science education: The state of the art. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 8(2), 105–107. Karapantsios, T. D., Boutskou, E. I., Touliopoulou, E., & Mavros, P. (2008). Evaluation of chemical laboratory safety based on student comprehension of chemicals labelling. Education for Chemical Engineers, 3(1), e66–e73. doi.org/10.1016/ j.ece.2008.02.001 Pitt, M. J. (1988). Can laboratory safety be taught? Journal of Chemical Education, 65(12), A312. Richards-Babb, M., Bishoff, J., Carver, J. S., Fisher, K., & Robertson-Honecker, J. (2010). Keeping it safe: Chemical safety in the high school laboratory. Journal of Chemical Health and Safety, 17(1), 6–14. doi.org/10.1016/j.jchas.2009.05.001 Rovinelli, R. J., & Hambleton, R. K. (1976). On the use of content specialists in the assessment of criterion-referenced test item validity. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED121845 Schröder, I., Huang, D. Y. Q., Ellis, O., Gibson, J. H., & Wayne, N. L. (2015). Laboratory safety attitudes and practices: A comparison of academic, government, and industry researchers. Journal of Chemical Health and Safety. doi.org/10.1016/ j.jchas.2015.03.001 Stroud, L. M., Stallings, C., & Korbusieski, T. J. (2007). Implementation of a science laboratory safety program in North Carolina schools. Journal of Chemical Health and Safety, 14(3), 20–30. doi.org/10.1016/j.jchas.2006.11.001 Tamir, P. (1976). The role of the laboratory in science teaching. Technical report 10. The
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University of Iowa. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED135606 Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55. doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd Wu, T.C., Li, C.C., Chen, C.H., & Shu, C.M. (2008). Interaction effects of organizational and individual factors on safety leadership in college and university laboratories. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 21(3), 239–254. doi. org/10.1016/j.jlp.2007.04.011
_______________ About the authors DUMCHO WANGDI is a recipient of F.L. Gorospe Prize for Academic Proficiency in B.Ed. Secondary Science in 2007 from Samtse College of Education. He is currently working as a teacher in Bajothang Higher Secondary School under Wangduephodrang district. He has earned his postgraduate studies from the Mahidol University in Thailand in the field of Science and Technology Education. His research interests include pedagogical practices in science education, 21st century teaching skills and science teacher professional development.
SONAM TSHOMO obtained her Master’s Degree in Science (Physics) from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia with GPA of 3.94 for which she was awarded a gold medal for her academic achievement. She is the recipient of merit certificate for F.L. Gorospe Prize for Academic Proficiency in B.Ed. Secondary Science in 2007 from Samtse College of Education. Currently, she teaches physics at Bajothang Higher Secondary School in Wangdue district. She can be contacted at
[email protected]
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Strategies for Teaching Physics: An Action Research SHERAB JATSHO AND SONAM RINCHEN
Abstract
Although physics is one of the core subjects of science and technology, many students find it to be a mentally exhausting subject with a dearth of fun that demands complex analysis for mastery (Tamang, 2004). So in offering quality physics education, a teacher needs to keep this complexity in mind when developing teaching strategies. This paper investigates the teaching strategies that can be employed to impart physics lessons effectively. Within a short span of time (six weeks of Teaching Practice), this research was carried out at Nima Middle Secondary School, Kuzhugchen under Thimphu Dzongkhag with 24 class IX students. Data were gathered using three methods: observation, class tests and questionnaires. The findings were validated using diary notes, feedback from a critical friend, the researcher’s observation and data triangulation. The findings from these multiple sources reveal that students developed interest in learning physics after the intervention. More interestingly, their much improved score in the class test after intervention shows the propensity of how crucial a teacher’s way of teaching is in imparting physics lessons effectively. The improvement in students’ physics performance overwhelmed our colleagues and critical friend and they would like to model our strategies in their future prospects of teaching physics.
Key words: Action research, Teaching strategies, Intervention programmes, Physics, Continuous assessment, Class IX students
Introduction In this globalised world, the need for fundamental scientific knowledge is a major component of education. Bhutan’s curriculum handbook for schools (1996) clearly states the rationale behind science education: “Science in secondary school level should cater to equip the students who want to pursue higher studies in the field of science and technology. For others, this course should enable them to understand the natural and physical environment and in particular the technological environment” (p. 37). The science curriculum at the Higher Secondary School level offers advanced courses of science studies with physics as one of the elective subjects. However, science subjects still have a hard time winning the mindset of Bhutanese students. Physics is the study of nature and natural phenomena. Tamang (2004) noted, “Physics remains as one of the knotty subjects for the majority of our students with its many derivations, definitions, formulae, laws and most importantly its unending calculations” (p. 43). He also opined that a great many students find it rather a dry subject with a dearth of interesting activities which demands an aggressive memorisation for its mastery in examination. So, the physics teacher’s role in the improvement of students’ performance in physics is crucial. Research is the means of finding solutions to problems. More interestingly, action research is the process of finding solutions to a problem in which both the respondent and researcher aim for improvement. According to Maxwell (2003), the key idea of
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action research is the systematic collection of data in order to answer a research question for the purpose of improvement. So this action research was undertaken to improve student performance in physics using new strategies. Different teaching strategies were used in the intervention programmes to bring about improvement in the teaching and learning of physics. To find the impact of teaching strategies, observations, evaluation and questionnaires were used as data collection tools.
Reconnaissance Reconnaissance is a diagnostic phase that requires insight to identify the most critical point of attack from which a positive impact can most likely proceed. Maxwell (2003) conceptualised reconnaissance as consisting of three parts, namely, situational analysis, analysis of competence of the researcher, critical friend and participants and review of related literature. The objective of reconnaissance is to come up with an action research question that will lead to improvement as detailed below.
Situational Analysis Bhutan is a small land-locked country in the eastern Himalayas sandwiched between two giant neighbours, India and China. Nested in the heart of the Himalayas, the country remains isolated and protected from the rest of the world by complex topography of high mountains, swift flowing rivers and deep valleys. With only around 14,800 square miles (38,400 square kilometers) of territory, Bhutan earned a reputation for being the “Last Shangri-la.” The country is divided into 20 Dzongkhags which are further subdivided into 205 gewogs. Democratic Constitutional Monarchy has been the political system of the country since 2008 following 100 years of rule by a monarchy system. Today, Bhutan has become increasingly well-known. The naturalistic green environment, rich tradition and culture, and unique developmental philosophy are the main guiding forces for Bhutan’s foreign aids and tourist sites. Conceived by His Majesty the Fourth King of Bhutan, a national policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ (GNH) is based on the belief that happiness can best be achieved through development that balances the needs of the body with those of the mind through a stable and sustainable environment. Modern education was introduced only in the early 1960s with only some basic necessities provided by the Government of India. As of now, the general literacy rate of Bhutan is 63.0% and the youth literacy rate is 86.1% (National Statistics Bureau [NSB], 2012). The poverty rate of the population is 12.0% (NSB, 2012). According to the NSB report of 2012, the unemployment rate of our country is 3.3%. So there is a need to upgrade the student’s level of education especially in the field of science and technology.
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Education System in Bhutan Prior to the 1950s, education in Bhutan was mainly monastic. Under the Second King, His Majesty Jigme Wangchuck, Bhutan opened its first secular schools, with both the curriculum and the medium of instruction (Hindi) borrowed from India. But it was in the 1960s, under the Third visionary King, His Majesty Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, that Bhutan began to build its education system in earnest (The Bhutan Canada Foundation, 2014). Realising the need for a small nation like Bhutan to communicate with the rest of the world, the Third King made English the language of instruction. This laid the foundations for the network of primary, secondary, and post-secondary institutions that eventually spread across Bhutan. Bhutan’s educational system has changed drastically since the 1960s. Since the introduction of planned development in the early 1960s, the education system in Bhutan has grown from a mere 400 students in 11 schools to over 190,000 students in over 553 schools (National Statistical Bureau, 2013). Education today is playing a pivotal role not only in meeting the country’s human resource needs but also to improve the quality of life, which ultimately contributes to the achievement of GNH. Today, we have realised that the success of the country is deeply rooted in the education system.
Nima Middle Secondary School-Practising School Nima Middle Secondary School is in Kuzhugchen village, which is located 22 km from Thimphu city. It was established in 2003 and caters predominantly to the students of Kabesa, Begana and Chantagang. It is a day school that supports 402 students (214 boys and 188 girls) and employs 27 teachers. Class sizes are approximately 25-30 students per class. It is generally felt that the teacher-student ratio is acceptable, with key challenges being around teacher specialisation in subjects. The class with which we chose to conduct our research was class IX. The students take innovative physics as one of the science subjects. The first author was given the opportunity to teach physics for 6 weeks. The class comprised 10 males and 14 females. The main medium used to communicate during the teaching and learning process was English. They were studying physics as a subject for the first time.
Competence McNiff and Whitehead (2002) posit that to ensure action research is an educative practice, it is essential to remember that “I” remain at the centre of enquiry as a potential influence for good in the lives of others. Also, the participatory nature of action research makes it a social process of collaborative learning realised by groups of people who join together in changing the practices through which they interact in a shared social world
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(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005). So, in our action research, ‘I’ (first author) as an educator was at the centre, and the students as participants were collaborating in examining the strategies for teaching physics. The first author graduated with B.Sc physical science (physics and chemistry), from Sherubtse College in 2013. He has an innate predisposition towards exploring in the field of research. To this date, he has published one research paper and attended several seminars as an observer and media reporter. He served as an assistant researcher to the Dean of Research and Industrial Linkages and helped to run research conference and in the publication of college research journal at Sherubtse College. At Samtse College of Education (SCE), Introduction to Research Methods in Education (EDU503) module further equipped him with how to carry out educational research in general and action research in particular. He has also attended several workshops on research. The second author is a faculty member at SCE and a mentor to the first author. Our critical friend has good research knowledge as he has attended a research module at SCE, written papers for journals and presented research papers at the conferences.
Literature Review Physics is a fundamental science which is concerned with the basic principles of the universe (Wang, 2005). It is the foundation for other physical sciences. Teaching science to young learners is a challenging task for teachers as the subject has to be made very interesting. Unless motivated to “do science” learning a science will be a mundane activity for a student. The teacher has to make changes in the teaching of science because the world is changing (Wang, 2005). Teachers must not only teach students knowledge but also develop their problem solving skills and lifelong learning skills. Many teachers use a traditional approach to teach science. Traditional physics instruction relies heavily on the use of drills and practice for solving numerical problems, requiring routine application of formulae and equations for the solutions (Tao, 1999). The teachers have to follow the texts designed by Department of Research and Curriculum (DCRD), and carefully prepare and present lectures. Assessment, testing and feedback are used to support this process. This is known as the behaviourist style of teaching. For most of the teachers, it is the preferred way to teach and learn science. However, to fulfil the insatiable desires of most students, teachers must employ new sets of strategies to teach. The authors believe that the use of these contemporary teaching strategies as an intervening measure should be useful in improving teaching in physics. Teaching strategies can be defined as plans of action to use teaching tactics, in which a teacher selects, coordinates and applies teaching techniques/teaching procedures in order to make the learning effective. In his research on “Strategies for Teaching Physics,” Tamang (2004) lists ten strategies to teach the subject effectively: use of double-paged
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lesson recipes; use of simpler words and relevant examples; frequent demonstration and investigation; use of humorous questions and explanations; using diagrams to solve questions; using acronyms of statement to learn the longer ones; application–based approaches; using simpler explanations and questions; assessment and evaluation of students work and achievement; and evaluation of our teaching. Most of the strategies listed by Tamang are aligned with imparting constructivist education. Moreover, Wang (2005) in his paper, “Using new strategies to improve teaching and learning in Fundamental Physics course” lists four strategies in teaching physics: problem based learning, concept mapping, team work and mini-lecture and assessment. In this action research, certain unavoidable circumstances pertaining to time and resources did not permit the authors to do thorough research on all the strategies for physics as uncovered in the literature review. Nevertheless, selected strategies examined are listed in the intervention section. Systematic and logical data analysis was undertaken.
Action Research Question Based on the literature of strategies for teaching physics and situational analysis, this research study posed the following question: What do I do to enhance class IX students’ proficiency in physics?
Research Design and Methodology For the successful conduct of this research, authors used a multi method approach to data collection and analysis, employing the three tools of observation, test and questionnaires as discussed in turn below. Observation - One of the prominent means of collecting data was through observation. We observed students’ response during class hours and the effectiveness of a particular strategy used. Our critical friend also recorded some observations. Since action research itself is a change directed towards improvement, we examined the degree of improvement in learning and attitude towards learning provided. The first was general observation of how students take part in the learning process. This method of data collection involved recording a tally of evidence. As mentioned by Rinchen (2009), “a tally was used to record the frequency of number of question raised, frequency of clarification sought, volunteering to answer the question, taking initiative in the group work, any sort of misbehaviour, peer interaction and interaction with the teacher” (p. 11). Two rounds of observations were carried out during the entire period of action research study.
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Test results - This data collection tool was to see the improvement in students’ performance in physics. A well-structured question set was designed and verified by the critical friend. It encompasses all the levels of questions from Bloom’s Taxonomy. However, for the baseline data, we used the mid-term examination score for physics since the research was carried out within a short period of time. Questionnaires - The third set of data was collected by administering questionnaires. Questionnaires were framed on three point Likert scale with the following ratings: Agree = 1; Agree to Some Extent = 2; and Disagree = 3 (Appendix A). The questionnaires were designed with the intention to find students’ interest towards learning physics. The questionnaires were administered twice, one before the intervention and once after the intervention.
Baseline Result The first data source was the observation of how students participate in the classroom learning process. During the first two weeks, five out of 24 students (three males and two females) voluntarily took part in responding to questions and seeking clarification. The frequency of participation was five times by one male student, three times by one female student, and the remaining three students participated only once. The students who participated in the class were those who are confident and fluent in English. Most of the students were shy and hardly participate in class discussion unless forced by the teachers. The second method of data collection involved reviewing their physics mid-term exam papers. Their marks revealed that 60% of the students failed in the physics midterm. The highest mark was 64 out of 100 and the lowest mark was 11. As a subject teacher, the first author felt the need to improve students’ performance in physics. The data from questionnaires revealed that 59% of the students disagreed the statement: “physics is a very interesting subject” while 37.5% agreed to some extent that “physics is a very interesting subject.” Only 29% agreed that the “teacher’s way of teaching determines their understanding of physics.” The majority of the students (70%) agreed that “they are feeling bored when the teacher lectures throughout the period.” Other extended supporting questions and ratings revealed that almost all the students (91.7%) agreed that “learning takes place when they are given a chance to investigate.” Moreover, 70.8% of the students agreed that “using diagram to solve questions makes problem solving in physics easy.” Close to half (45.8%) of the class population agreed that the “teacher’s fair and just assessment let them to develop likeliness towards the subject taught.” Further, majority of the students agreed that “knowing the application” (50%) and “using acronyms will help them to learn physics better” (70.8%).
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In sum, the baseline data revealed that majority of the students have poor interest in the subject (59%) and dislike lecture-driven classes (70%) as reflected in Table 1 below. Table 1 Scores of Student’s Perception Levels on each Indicator before Intervention Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Physics Interest Indicators Physics is a very interesting subject Teacher's way of teaching determines my understandings of physics I am feeling bored when I listened to teacher's lecture throughout the period I learn more when teacher demonstrate and give opportunity to investigate it Using diagram to solve questions makes the problem solving in physics easy and interesting I can remember important laws and equations for longer time by framing an acronym Knowing the daily life application of the topic encourage me to pay more attention Teacher's fair and just assessment let me to develop likeliness towards the subject taught Note: D= Disagree; ASE= Agree to Some Extent; A= Agree
Agree to Disagree Some Agree Extent 59 37.5 4.1 21
50.0
29
4
26
70
4.2
4.1
91.7
0.0
29.2
70.8
16.7
37.5
45.8
0.0
50.0
50
8.4
20.8
70.8
The aforementioned baseline data are used as a comparative benchmark for the data collected after intervention programmes.
Intervention The baseline data revealed that students showed less interest in physics initially as evident from Table 1, where only one student (4.1%) agreed to the statement “Physics is a very interesting subject”. Moreover, it was clearly discernible from the small number of classroom participation (21%) and poor performance (50% average) in the mid-term examination. These data posit the need for intervention if we want the students to develop interest in physics as a subject and excel in it. The existing literature review suggested myriad of strategies to be used to teach physics lessons. As proposed by Jean Piaget and Vygotsky, constructivist approaches to-
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wards teaching and learning were taken into consideration. For instance, Vygotsky’s description of scaffolding instruction as opined by Raymond (2000) that the “role of teachers and others in supporting the student’s development and providing support structures to get to new level” (p. 176) was well thought-out. The following strategies were deployed and their effects on student learning were observed. Researchers stayed mindful of the importance of observing students’ responses to the specific strategy used. Frequent demonstration and investigation: Physics is a subject that needs a systematic learning process. It requires step by step explanation and demonstration. Demonstrating the skills and letting students practice will have a lasting impact on student learning. Hence, we delivered some lessons using the demonstration method and investigated student reactions. Using diagrams to solve questions: This method is helpful to solve numerical questions as well as for explanations during any lesson. The use of diagrams helps students to visualise the questions and numerical letters. It also provides them more clues and ideas to comprehend and solve problems. Using acronyms to improving speed of learning and retention: Those students who face difficulty in grasping and understanding long statements learn faster and better when shorter forms of statements are used. This strategy could be used to teach various laws, principles, hypotheses, equations and explanations. Researchers constructed interesting acronyms to teach some important laws and statement and inspect its impact on the students’ performance. Application base approach: Physics is a subject which has an all-round application in daily life. This intervention induces the students to learn physics by appreciating the applications of the subject matter that will allow them to think about the significance and technological uses of difficult subjects to their everyday lives. To boost student interest and encourage wider participation in the class, we related the concept taught in the class with every day practice. Assessment and evaluation of students’ work and achievement: The way teachers evaluate the work of the students and provide feedback influences the way they learn. Moreover, Gibbs (1999) noted assessment as the most powerful lever that teachers have to influence the way students respond to courses and behave as learners. We employed giving feedback and fair assessment and then recorded its effect in students’ performance and interest towards learning physics.
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Post Result As an apprentice during the conduct of intervention programmes, the first author was bit apprehensive about the improvement that he could foster. Yet, the conducive learning environment that he managed to create was amazing. It was a moment of achievement and, more interestingly, our critical friend’s comment during his last observation in the sixth week of the class was amazing. He expressed: In the beginning, physics class used to be most dull and boring class. What so ever be the effort from teacher, students were always silent. Student’s participation in the class activity is very low and they have to be forced to respond or take part in their learning. However, after the execution of the plan commenced, I saw the lively and interactive teaching and learning taking place. Students were very alert, responsive and always ready to take part in learning. I was amazed by the shift in student’s interest towards learning physics.
Observations showed that students who were apathetic in learning physics prior to the intervention were very supportive about their learning during and after the intervention programme. Except for a few naturally introverted students, almost all the students took part in classroom discussion voluntarily. Fourteen students (eight male and six female) were regular participants. They became proactive, responsive, and more open to classroom discussion. Some students even started to clarify their doubts with each other during free hours and after school. This finding coheres with those of Rinchen (2009) in a similar study who observed that after intervention: “the students became supportive of each other when their response did not make sense or when they fail to understand some concepts” (p. 13). The standard question paper similar to that of the mid-term test was used to collect the post data. While framing the questions, the concepts of a bell shaped curve and Bloom’s Taxonomy were taken into consideration. The class test marks revealed a drastic improvement in students’ performance in the physics test compared to the base line test. The pass percentage was 100%. The highest score was 86 out of 100 and lowest was 43. The mean mark of mid-term exam (base line data) was 40 while the post class test mean mark was 62. We were quite relieved and excited to see a major shift in the data collected from the questionnaires. Our main focus was on developing students’ interest in physics by using relevant teaching strategies during the intervention program. All the students (100%) agreed that “physics is an interesting subject” and the “teacher’s way of teaching determines their understanding of physics.” However, 4% responded in disagreement in terms of listening to the teacher’s lecture throughout the period compared to 41.6% in the base line data. And amazingly the ratings for all the teaching strategies used at various sessions were in agreement, indicating the relevance of those teaching methods in physics (See Table 2).
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Table 2 Scores of Student’s Perception levels on each Indicator after Intervention Sl. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Physics Interest Indicators Physics is a very interesting subject Teacher's way of teaching determines my understandings of physics I am feeling bored when I listened to teacher's lecture throughout the period I learn more when teacher demonstrate and give opportunity to investigate it Using diagram to solve questions makes the problem solving in physics easy and interesting I can remember important laws and equations for longer time by framing an acronym Knowing the daily life application of the topic encourage me to pay more attention Teacher's fair and just assessment let me to develop likeliness towards the subject taught Note: D= Disagree; ASE= Agree to Some Extent; A= Agree
Disagree 0.0
Agree to Some Agree Extent 0.0
100
0.0
0.0
100
41.6
16.7
41.6
4.3
4.3
91.3
0.0
8.7
91.3
4.2
16.6
79.2
0.0
25.0
75
0.0
8.7
91.3
Triangulation of Multiple Data Source To authenticate the data gathered from multiple sources, data triangulation was used. As for the observational results, the students who initially needed to be called upon to take part in class activity or respond to questions volunteered to do so after intervention. The rise in the number of regular participants from five in the beginning to 14 in the end was impressive as reflected in Figure 1. Their class test score also gives more illumination to the success of the intervention programmes. Assessment as a means of gathering information on how much a student has learned gives a wider meaning for those strategies used as intervention. The class pass percentage increased from 40% in the beginning to 100% after the intervention programmes (see Figure 1). The rating score from the questionnaires was also very positive. For instance, as reflected in Figure 1, with only 4.1% of students interested in physics in the beginning, the post data shows 100% of the students were interested.
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Figure 1. Triangulation of data from class participation, test result and student’s interest to physics (questionnaires) for baseline and post intervention data.
Discussion and Conclusions The data collected from three different sources revealed that after the intervention programmes, students’ interest towards the physics subject had developed. A majority of the indicators in the questionnaires indicated the relevance of different teaching strategies used. The demonstration method and use of diagrams to solve physics problems gave students enough opportunity to acquire knowledge. The term ‘acronym’ was new to students until our intervention. After intervention, a majority of the students strongly agreed that they can remember important laws and equations for a longer time by framing an acronym. For instance, one of the respondents said, “Sir I will remember three primary colours throughout my life. The acronym ‘RGB’ which sir used to represent Royal Government of Bhutan will not be forgotten cannot for a long time to come” (Researcher’s diary notes). RGB actually stands for three primary colours (red, green and blue). The teaching strategies used were relevant to teach physics lessons. The findings can be related well to Tamang’s research (2004) on “strategies for teaching physics” where he noted that demonstration and investigation; using diagrams to solve questions; using acronyms of statement to learn the longer ones; application–based approaches; assessment and evaluation of students work and achievement as some of the strategies for teaching physics.
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As a physics teacher in the making, the first author was glad about the success of our action research. As mentioned by Rinchen (2009) the positive aspect of our research was that the study was contextualised; the goals were realistic and could cater to the needs of both students and teacher. Despite week long disturbances in the teaching learning process due to the Thimphu Dzongkhag Sport Meets, we remained optimistic about the flexibility of our plan. We rescheduled three lost periods to other days. The outcome of this action research not only gratified us, it overwhelmed our critical friend and some of our friends too. Most of the physics post graduate friends wish to model our strategy in their class in the immediate future. Despite many obstacles, we are fully satisfied after the completion of this study. It not only enhances our proficiency in the area we chose to study but we have strengthened our competence in action research. In the words of Maxwell (2003), “action research is such a flexible process, amenable as it is to a wide variety of questions and situations” (p. 1). It is not highly resource dependant but depends upon the capacities of the people involved. We were amazed by the drastic improvement of our students in learning physics. We would highly recommend the teaching strategies that we used to adopt in physics classes.
References A Curriculum Handbook for Schools. (1996). The purpose of school education in Bhutan. Curriculum and Professional Support Section, Ministry of Education, Thimphu Bhutan. Bhutan Canada Foundation. (2014). Retrieved May 7, 2014, from Education in Bhutan http://teachinbhutan.org/teach/teaching-in-bhutan/ Gibbs, G. (1999). Assessment matters in higher education: Choose and using diverse approaches. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press, 44-54. Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (2005). Participatory action research: Communicative action and the public sphere. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), The sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd edition). California: Sage Publications Inc. Maxwell, T. W. (2003). Action research for Bhutan. Rabsel-Center for Educational Research and Development, 3, 1-20. McNiff, J., & Whitehead, J. (2002). Action research: Principles and practice. London: Routledge. National Statistical Bureau. (2012). Retrieved May 7, 2014, from http://www.nsb.gov. bt/main/ indicator.php National Statistical Bureau. (2013). Retrieved October 20, 2014, from http:// www.nsb.gov.bt/publication/files/pub9ot4338yv.pdf Raymond, E. (2000). Cognitive characteristics: Learners with mild disabilities (pp.169-201). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, A Pearson Education Company.
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Rinchen, S. (2009). Developing reflective thinking: Encouraging pre-service teachers to be responsible for their own learning. Paper presented at ‘Teacher education crossing borders: Cultures, contexts, communities and curriculum’ the Annual Conference of the Australian Teacher Education Association (ATEA), Albury. Tamang, M. (2004). Strategies for teaching physics. Rabsel-Center for Educational Research and Development, 4, 34 to 45. Tao, P.K. (1999). Peer collaboration in solving qualitative physics problems: The role of collaborative talk. Research in Science Education, 29(3), 365-383. Wang, L. (2005). Using new strategies to improve teaching and learning fundamental physics course. Retrieved May 10, 2014, from The China Paper: http://science. uniserve.edu.au/pubs/ china/vol5/CP5_phys_01.pdf
APPENDIX A Questionnaires: Description 1. Personal information (Tick the most appropriate option) a) Gender: (Male / Female) b) Class………… c) Section…………. d) Class Strength…………
Direction: Please take a moment to rate the following statements that best describes your opinion: 1= Agree; 2 = Agree to Some Extent (ASE); 3=Disagree
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Physics Interest Indicators
Disagree
Agree to Some Agree Extent
Physics is a very interesting subject Teacher's way of teaching determines my understandings of physics I am feeling bored when I listened to teacher's lecture throughout the period I learn more when teacher demonstrate and give opportunity to investigate it Using diagram to solve questions makes the problem solving in physics easy and interesting I can remember important laws and equations for longer time by framing an acronym Knowing the daily life application of the topic encourage me to pay more attention Teacher's fair and just assessment let me to develop likeliness towards the subject taught Note: D= Disagree; ASE= Agree to Some Extent; A= Agree
________________ About the authors SHERAB JATSHO is a physics teacher at Drukjegang Higher Secondary School, Dagana Dzongkhag. He had a Post Graduate Diploma in Education from Samtse College of Education and bachelor degree in science from Sherubtse College, Royal University of Bhutan. He worked as Research Assistant in the office of the Dean of Research and Industrial Linkages and as copy-editor for Sherub-Doenme - the Research Journal of Sherubtse College. He also served as the President of Sherubtse Media Society. His research interest includes action research, religion, culture and socio-economic prospect.
SONAM RINCHEN is an Assistant Professor at the College of Education, Samtse. His research interests include teacher education and women studies. He is also interested in the study of emotions and emotional climate of science classrooms both at the school and university level.
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POLICY BRIEF A Blueprint for Educational Development A Policy Highlight
DORJI THINLEY Most countries that have successful education systems pursue a national plan of action that aims to improve the quality of student learning or redirect its purpose to suit emerging needs and challenges or open up to new opportunities. No matter what name a country gives its educational development plan - a reform initiative, a strategic plan, a roadmap, or a blueprint – such a plan is always shaped by that country’s development priorities. The Ministry of Education, Royal Government of Bhutan, launched the Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014-2024 (BEB 2014-2024) at the seventeenth Annual Education Conference held in Punakha on 26 December 2014. A ‘blueprint’ is an elaborate plan or design that explains what an organization’s or a larger system’s - such as a government’s - strategic goals are and how these will be achieved over a definite period of time. The Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014-2024 is a comprehensive plan of action developed by the Ministry of Education with an ambitious goal to see substantial gains in four critical areas of Bhutan’s educational development – increasing access, improving quality, achieving equity, and enhancing system efficiency. Initiated in May 2014 and considered an “unprecedented event in the history of Bhutan’s education system” (BEB 2014-2024, p. 122), the blueprint was a result of wideranging consultations across the nation with people in all walks of life and research into local and international best practices and models relevant to Bhutan. The blueprint was developed with three broad aims: i) to gain a fuller understanding of the current status of the education system in the four critical areas mentioned above and to gauge the emerging challenges that must be confronted for positive gains to occur; ii) to establish and articulate a clear vision of education for the country based on a clear understanding of the national aspirations for education, aspirations for student learning, and aspirations for the education system; and iii) to set up a multi-pronged strategy for transforming the Bhutanese education system through a result-driven and time-bound educational transformation roadmap. These transformation goals are anchored on the belief that whatever plan for change is set up by the Bhutanese educational system, the ultimate goal must be to improve the quality of learning students imbibe in school and university.
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The Blueprint describes a set of nine attributes that the educational system must ensure every student in the country develops. The attributes are: Knowledge and Understanding; Intellectual Competence; Communicative Competence; Enduring Habits of Lifelong Learning; Family, Community and National Values; Spirituality and Character; Physical Wellbeing; Leadership Competence; and World-readiness. Underlining the centrality of the attributes, the Blueprint says, “It is imperative for Bhutan’s education system to ensure that every student in every school develops the attributes (outcomes) in this Blueprint so that they are sufficiently prepared to thrive in a competitive economy and homogenized world” (BEB 2014-2024, p. 65). Hence, the success of the “game changing initiatives” described in this ten-year transformation roadmap will depend primarily on how the country’s educational institutions, particularly the school system, are able to develop these qualities in the students and show measurable indicators of having achieved the intended result. How was the blueprint development initiative managed? The entire process – from conceptualization to completion – was executed in five phases from May through December 2014. The first phase (Project initiation phase) was mostly spent on setting the project administrative structures and establishing an Education Review Office. The second phase (Education sector review phase) mostly entailed inventorying prior research studies, development of project guidelines, defining the focal areas of concern, defining the parameters and indicators, and defining the results framework. In the third phase (National consultations planning phase), survey tools and schedules and consultation techniques and schedules were developed and trailed. A unique feature of Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014-2014 is the multicity of views and expert opinions and the breadth of research into high-performing but relevant systems that shaped the substance of each Chapter of this historic document. For example, the Ministry of Education consulted individuals across a wide range of sectors - including students, teachers, parents, policy makers, educational administrators, farmers, education leaders, law-makers, senior citizens, thought leaders, members of civil society and business organizations, and many others, to understand what their dreams and aspirations were about the national education system. During the fourth phase (Data gathering and analysis phase), the staff in the Education Review Office and members of the field survey team administered the surveys, and conducted the consultation meetings and focused group discussions. Data were then analyzed. In the final phase (Post-consultation phase), the draft of the Blueprint was produced, post-consultations with key informants and relevant stakeholders were carried out, and the final edited version of the Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014-2024 was generated and the definitive document was launched successfully. The key tasks of developing the Blueprint was guided by a National Steering Committee chaired by the Honourable Prime Minister of Bhutan Lyonchhen Tshering Tobgay, a National Task Force chaired by the Honourable Education Minister, then Sherig Lyonpo Mingbo Dukpa, and a Core Working Group chaired also by then Sherig Lyonpo Mingbo
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Dukpa. What is the content of the Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014-2024 and how is it organized? Chapter One provides an overview of the historical context of Bhutan’s educational development including the significant milestones in that process, the call for change against the backdrop of the changing landscape of education in the national and international context, the urgent need for an education development roadmap for the country, and the methodology employed in developing the roadmap. Chapter Two highlights the emerging questions and challenges that the education system was facing, and realistically so in terms of improving access, achieving quality, promoting equity, and enhancing system efficiency. Chapter Three delineates the national aspirations for Bhutan’s education system as drawn from the views of people consulted in a wide range of sectors and different walks of life. The Chapter then describes the aspirations for student learning as envisaged in the Blueprint. The student aspirations are represented by the nine attributes that every learner must be helped to develop during life in school. Chapter Three also describes the strategic shifts that the system will make over the ten-year transformation phase (2014-2024) in order to deliver the shifts. Chapter Four provides a specific description of the eight strategic shifts that the Ministry of Education will make in order to achieve the change results envisaged from a successful implementation of the education Blueprint. These are: Shift 1 – enhancing access to and equity in education; Shift 2 – revamping curriculum and assessment to enhance student learning; Shift 3 – raising the level of student learning outcomes to international standards; Shift 4 – transforming teaching into a profession of choice; Shift 5 - Ensuring high-performing schools and school leaders; Shift 6 – leveraging ICT for improving the quality of learning; Shift 7 – enhancing values education and wellbeing in education; and Shift 8 – transforming the system to strengthen capacity and improve capabilities. Finally, Chapter 5 describes a set of forty “game-changing initiatives” that will be rolled out phase-wise over the 10-year change period. For example, the game-changers for initiating Shift 1 (enhancing access to and equity in education) include enhancing access to ECCD programme, enhancing access to tertiary education, and improving gender equity, among others. The game-changing initiatives for realizing the objectives of Shift 2 (revamping curriculum and assessment to enhance student learning) include benchmarking school curriculum to international standards, among others). Those for realizing the intent of Shift 3 (raising the level of student learning outcomes to international standards) include transforming teaching-learning practices in schools, recognizing and rewarding high performers. In order to realize the intent of Shift 7 (enhancing values education and wellbeing in education), the educating for GNH programme will be strengthened and efforts will be made to sustain it. As well, a robust system of monitoring and evaluating the programme will be put in place. The game-changers for Shift 8 (transforming the system to strengthen
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capacity and improve capabilities) include reorganizing functional structures at the Ministry, Dzongkhag/Thromde and school levels, drafting and institutionalizing an Education Act, establishing a Teacher Council, among others. Chapter Five then describes the educational transformation process along the tenyear period in the form of three waves that the system will see as a result of successfully delivering the eight shifts via the corresponding game-changing initiatives. During Wave 1 (2014-2017), the expected change is a “system turnaround”; in Wave 2 (2018-2020), an “accelerated system improvement” will be seen; and in Wave 3 (2021-2024), the educational system will have moved towards “excellence”. The development of the Bhutan Education Blueprint 2014-2024 drew inspiration from Bhutan’s national development goals guided by the profound vision of Gross National Happiness (GNH), constitutional mandate for education for the children of Bhutan, and His Majesty the King’s vision for the youth of Bhutan. The important question is, will the Blueprint deliver the intended results? A multiplicity of factors will come to play to influence the level of success of the eight shifts and their corresponding initiatives. There is no scope here to discuss this question. But briefly: sustained political will, investment of collective effort, research into and constant monitoring and evaluation of the change process, its outcomes and impact, openness to feedback and continuous improvement, willingness to learn from mistakes, and constant engagement of teachers and school leaders in the change process, will be vital for the success of the Blueprint. The authentic copy of the Blueprint is available in paper form as well as on the official website of the Ministry of Education, Royal Government of Bhutan (see www.education. gov.bt). Note 1.
Since this article is not intended to be read as a research work, no references are listed at the end of the paper.
_________________
About the author DORJI THINLEY is the Director of Samtse College of Education in the Royal University of Bhutan (RUB). Prior to moving to this job, he was RUB’s Director of Research and External Relations from 2011 to 2015. He had taught in the two colleges of education - Samtse and then Paro - for many years. In the latter, he was also for a few years the Dean of Academic Affairs. A passionate educator, he has taught undergraduate and postgraduate courses, mentored junior faculty and run professional development programmes for school and university teachers in Bhutan. Close to his heart in his leadership roles is the cultivation of inner discipline, enduring habits of learning, openness to change, and humility. His writings have focused on the interaction of education and culture.
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BOOK REVIEW Himalayan Bridge – A Must-read for Asian Awakening JOSE K C “I feel dwarfed,” I told my friend, “after reading Himalayan Bridge, edited by Niraj Kumar, George van Driem and Phunchok Stobdan. The profound erudition, the freshness of insights, the spectrum of themes and above all the ground-breaking revelation that the Himalayan and trans-Himalayan region can be a cultural and geo-political centre stage, if intelligently streamlined and diplomatically tackled are such a treat to the reader that s/he feels but dwarfed. What a reassuring glimpse and proud epiphany of our own strengths as Asians. What jolting knowledge of how little we know about our roots, the what-abouts and our where-abouts! The long stretch of the Himalayas from the Pamir Knot in the northwest to the Himalayan massif knots in the southeast has the potential of a bridging terrain for us Asians, transcending apparent cultural, national and linguistic differences. An awakening of this crucial awareness in the citizenry of the region is a task sacred and responsibility time-mandated (if we read right the graffiti of times) for the education sector. The time is so ripe these days – the dawn of the 21st century – that the tiny kingdom of the Himalayas, Bhutan volunteered to educate her young citizens for Gross National Happiness (GNH), as Dr. Dorji Thinley, a visionary-educationist of the region, points out: As evident in the country’s national vision of education as well as the Royal University of Bhutan’s institutional goal of “cultural enrichment, personal development and well being” (RUB, 2008, p. 2), the transmission and internalization of the country’s rich cultural values is an indispensable element of school and tertiary education in Bhutan. (p.231)
Dr. Thinley dwells extensively on the efforts by the nation’s education sector to foster culture among the scholars through curriculum revisions, teaching practices and, to crown it all, an extensive ‘green school’ movement. Wary of the ‘homogenising effects of globalisation” (p.232), Bhutan’s ‘cultural greenery’ – one of the eight greeneries in the school –, when adequately inculcated and established, bulwarks and protects cultural diversity: nineteen different languages, for example, embedded among the tangible/intangible duo. Citing Dasho Karma Ura, Dr. Thinley establishes that the country’s educational endeavours cater to the preservation and promotion of the ‘actions and practices’ besides the immortal and sustaining ‘values’. Indeed, there do exist concerns – “These are no mean challenges.” (p.237). The writer quotes Choden, (2002) who refers to “a process of alienation from
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the local culture” in case of inadequate exposure to home folklore and Curriculum and Professional Support Division [CAPSD] (2001), which, referring to classes VII and VIII value education curriculum, calls it ‘deficient’ owing to much of the content being from alien lands. The sublime idea of ‘school greenery’, perhaps counter and address such ‘no mean challenges’. The brain child of the ex-Minister of Education, Thakur Singh Powdyel, a towering educationist and luminary like Dasho Ura, ‘school greenery’ is evolved from and inspired by Bhutan’s GNH philosophy. Quoting Powdyel now and then, Dr. Thinley highlights the paramountcy of the education-culture blend, out of which will be born a revolutionary enlightenment on the loftiness of the ‘Himalayan bridge’ concept of the book. May the revolution start in Bhutan, triggered by concerted cultural greenery practices in our schools. The tangible/intangible dialectics aforesaid finds a cute, irresistible expression in the dazzlingly intriguing paper by Niraj Kumar and Chingngaih Biak, Textile, Text, Terracing, Territoriality: Weaving a Pan-Himalayan Identity – “Richard Martin describes textile as the convergence of the tangible and intangible.”(p.87) The textile or the fabric that covers our body but is external to it often resonate multiple messages – history, custom, beliefs, legends, superstitions, values, hierarchy and so on, thus encompassing the tangible and the intangible in one’s culture. In that sense, the writers call after Pierre Lemonnnier (2012) textile particularly of the Highland Himalayas, Perissological resonator. The paper tells us also that the textile technology existed even before the Neolithic period of 8000 B C, thereby underlining that ‘textile predates text’ (p. 89). Etymologically, the Latin textere and textus mean ‘weave’. Besides, the familiar ‘sutra’(textual treatises) in Sanskrit means ‘thread’ as are – interestingly for word-lovers – the Vedic terms – grantha for book, tantra for esoteric religious texts., nibandha for tying and prabandha for banded sheets of paper, as in a thesis (p.92). The paper is extremely exciting as it is analytical and it exposes us to pleasant curiosities such as: i. There is a perceptible gender-indexing, though covert and subtle, in the creation of texts and textiles because when textile patterns and embroidery were mostly a feminine job, text-writing was a masculine one. Interestingly, textile predates text and so the Highland Himalayas had pronounced feminine role in their cultures. ii. The Burmese China women often weave a big blanket for the corpses of the spouse to be wrapped upon their demises in equal halves, so that the spirits will be united post mortem. iii. Terracing is a strong motif in the life and culture of the trans-Himalayan nomads from India to Vietnam and China: terrace farming, habitation terracing (polyethnic, polylinguistic communities at different altitudes of the same mountain – p.101), as also exhibited by yak-mithun- buffalo habitats and above all the altitudinal co-existence of different species of the hornbill (eg: Thailand forests) in the canopy of the
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same tree. The hornbill, found plenty in the Nabang sanctuary along the MyanmarYunnan border, is revered by people of this area. As an anthropological oddity, the Chin-Kuki-Naga communities (“Buddhism-sandwiched”) don’t believe in the circularity of life and existence (‘chakra’ and ‘sunyatha’) and there is a near-complete absence of the circular motifs in their textiles, thereby rejecting the impact of the transcendental sun and moon, for example. However, for Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, let alone the Chinese ying-yang – which the book’s cover shows -, circularity (the mandalas, for example) is the centre to physical and metaphysical being. “In fact, the whole zone, from Ladakh to Nagaland via Yunnan and northern Myanmar” (p.103) is obsessed with the sights and thoughts of the rainbow – which is a common sight unlike the sun because of the frequent cloudy ad overcast skies. In Tibetan, the rainbow is dmu-thag, a ladder to heaven. The banding pattern in the rainbow parallels the rungs of the ladder – curiously, there are 12 ladders on the south face of the sacred Mount Kailash: Kang Rimpoche. The mention of the “virgin peak” named Kang Karpo Peak, the three sacred Yading peaks – Chenrezi, Jampayang and Chenadorji – co-related to the three-stone pillars for cooking. The word origins of ‘Kashmir’ (‘kas’ = water; ‘mir’ = mountain), of ‘Tuikang’ (‘tui’=water; ‘kang’ = mountain). In the backdrop of the Tibeto-Burman language family, the ‘Kang’ culture is predominantly one of worshipping mountains and the sustaining water that flows from them. The Asian cultural stripes shown on a map: from the west eastwards- the Koran culture, the Kang culture contiguous with the Indian Karmic culture and thence the Kanji culture. Following James C. Scott (2009), about 100 million people of “truly bewildering ethnic and linguistic variety”- p.74, are spread across 2.5 million square kilometers of the Himalayan stretch, not fully into nation states. They are mostly nomadic, resisting the striating and hierarchical formation of the state. They espouse the world view of ‘becoming’ as in the game of ‘go’, opposed to the rigid, rule-ridden ‘being’ as in the game of ‘chess’.
Re-emergence of Buddhism An important reminder in the trans-Himalayan and Asian context, which Glen Mullin gives is the historic inevitability of the re-emergence of Buddhism in the Himalayas, and more important, in the west. The following observation cannot escape our notice: “Thus the birth of Himalayan Buddhism in America was initiated not by Tibetan lamas fleeing the mass
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murderer Chairman Mao, but by the Mongol lamas fleeing the murderous Stalin.” (p.166) The author comes to this conclusion after sketching a series of causative factors that led to the spread of Buddhism and its revival like the Phoenix, after the mass destruction of the Buddhist monasteries and massacre of its practitioners, comparable to the devastation of the Byzantine empire. Mullin is thrilled to say that we live in crucial times, in the 6th 500-year cycle of the Buddha’s teachings, as was prophesied. He recalls excited the mega-conference of intellectuals called by Jawaharlal Nehru (whom he calls a ‘closet Buddhist’) in 1956. The five cycles he describes are: i. ii. iii. iv. v.
The time of the Shravaka doctrines The appearance of Nagarjuna The appearance of the Buddhist tantras The Indian Buddhist demise The birth of various national Buddhist cultures
A few reassuring words towards Buddhism on the go as a dominant school of thought and practice: We have been in this sixth 500-year period for almost two generations now. If we look back over the past five decades, we can certainly see that the Himalayan lamas have come out very strong in terms of international activity, in fact stronger than any other form of Buddhism. (p.172)
Buddhism and its great practitioners have had untold impacts in the moulding of the transHimalayan character as detailed by His Holiness Gyalwang Drukpa on the life and teachings of the great Naropa. In the wake of the renewed interest in Buddhism world over, the following observation by Phunchok Stobdan, whose focus though is the high volt potential of the Sino-Indian co-operation in the region, is a curious thought: “India’s corporate believes that the country is sitting atop millennia-old to tourist mines. A recent study report suggested that Shakyamuni could potentially generate $1 billion revenue for the country.” (p. 187). In a similar vein, Akilesh Suman suggests a Himalayan style of conflict resolution contrasted with the European- American style – which contrarily precipitated terrorism. In his paper, where he talks extensively on the role of Bhutan and Nepal in the Himalayas, Suman explains the Himalayan style as “respecting the natural divide” among the countries, as “winning Himalayas” should not be anyone’s ambition (p. 197). No wonder, military strategist, Nitin A. Gokhale delineates the unquestionable importance of Siachen to India, over which 13 rounds of Indo-Pak talks were held between 1986 and 2012, which he metaphorically quips as “low-hanging fruits to be plucked as strong confidence building
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measures.”(p. 199). Whereas the politico-defensive taste in you finds satiety in such views and analyses, the dietician and food enthusiast in you may read Professor Jyoti Prakash Tamang’s paper on the Himalayan food culture; the choreographer in you may interested in Sinam Basu Singh’s paper on Manipuri dance culture. Thus, Himalayan Bridge published in 2016 by K W Publishers Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, is a veritable treat to the geologist, the geographer, the geneticist, the politician, the linguist, the philanthropist, the aesthete, the philosopher and the esoteric and spiritually oriented. The mosaic is simply as impressive as it is deep and broad. A monumental work indeed, a harbinger manifesto of the emerging Asia. The dwarfed me – have I become restless as a passionate Asianist?
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About the author JOSE KC - Hailing from Central Kerala, India, has a teaching tenure of 29 years both in India and Bhutan – now, a lecturer in Samtse College of Education. He has worked as an administrator, worked as part of the Curriculum Division and Bhutan Board Examinations, Bhutan, besides being a validation panelist for a couple of Royal University of Bhutan Degree programmes. He believes that teaching is triple romance – first with the subject, then with the student and with the profession. Jose is an inspiring teacher and a teacher educator. He has initiated new educational practices such ‘Pasdemic care through microdata’, ‘Debate-skit sandwich’, ‘Critically Wise Catechism’, ‘Psychomotor poetry’, PLW, ‘Demonstrative Oratory’, EED, and ‘Seniors’ Guardianship of Juniors’. He has inspired a dozen of his students as writers and encouraged student magazines such as ‘Some Common Uncommon Why’s’, ‘The Reader Toddler’ and ‘The Personal Helicon’. He has written 20-odd articles on current educational and social issues in the print media. He has run a column of 100 serials of ‘High School Grammar Success’ in The Bhutan Observer. His published books are: ‘On the Flute’s Rapture’, “My Shortness is My Tallness’ and ‘Grammar Made Easy’ (The latter two are available online). He has presented eight odd research papers on education in national and international seminars.
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INTERVIEW An interview with Professor MacAndrew Jack on Counseling and Contemplative Education in Bhutan CRC: What is the difference between Contemplative Counseling and Contemplative Education? MacAndrew: I’ll start with the similarities. Both are rooted in the wisdom of the contemplative traditions, most notably that of Buddhism. It draws on the insights about the mind and our compassionate nature, that if we can settle the mind, recognise the clarity, emptiness, and warmth of our mind and its compassionate manifestation, then we will naturally be moved to find skillful ways to engage the world to reduce suffering. Both Contemplative Counseling and Contemplative Education recognise the value of sitting practice, the integration that comes from reflecting on what we learn through listening and reading, to come to a more embodied understanding of whatever we are studying. And both practices see the material that we study to be interdependent, fundamentally un-separate-able from ourselves, thus in order to understand something that we are learning, we need to understand ourselves, and also we understand more of ourselves through learning new things. Now the differences. The intended recipients are clearly different. Contemplative education directs its efforts to students in an education context who may or may not be complaining of a particular form of suffering. Contemplative Counseling, or psychotherapy, focuses on clients who are often there because they want to change something about their life, become happier. Another difference is that Contemplative Psychotherapy does not necessarily ask the client to meditate, but rather focuses on the counselor, and asks him or her to meditate regularly, in preparation to help clients. Contemplative education asks the student to meditate, in order to integrate the learning. Lastly, another similarity is that both disciplines help one to directly experience the spaciousness, vastness, and egoless openness from which all of our experienced phenomena arise, which then also allows us to let it all fall away, with impermanence. CRC: The programme on counseling first started in Bhutan in the late 1990s. What are your views on the development of counseling in Bhutan since then? MacAndrew: The counseling field in Bhutan is developing rapidly. As I understand it, the inspiration began in the late 90s, and there were a small handful of individuals who were
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supported to leave the country to become trained as counselors with master’s degrees. There were also weekend workshops, and short programmes familiarising people with the basics of counseling. A small handful of these initial counselors began to work in Department of Youth and Sports (DYS), and at the Respect Educate Nurture and Empower Women (RENEW), doing really great, pioneering work. It wasn’t until the late 2000s that work on the first diploma program began. All the while, the first four lecturers of Royal University of Bhutan, Karma Nidup, Nima, Karma Gayphel, and Wangchuk Dorji, were tasked with instructing teacher trainees in counseling. This was a preparatory period for the counseling field in Bhutan, I think, as there still wasn’t really a counseling field per se, rather there were teachers who had more familiarity with counseling as full time teachers. Finally, by 2012 the Post Graduate Diploma in Guidance and Counseling was launched here at Samtse College of Education, and by 2014, the first graduates of this programme were able to become hired as counselors. Still, I understand that schools have been slow to hire full-time counselors, that is, most counselors are given a full or nearly full-time teaching load in the schools, and then asked to perform as a counselor on top of that. This really is a huge compromise. We can understand that schools need the teachers, but the counselors aren’t supported to be counselors unless they can devote their time to counseling and all that comes with that role. So here we are now, with the field of Counseling in Bhutan being built rapidly since there wasn’t really a functioning counseling field a decade ago. The counseling field in Bhutan is doing what we call in America “bootstrapping”, an expression that refers to the physically impossible, paradoxical task of lifting ones’ self up by one’s own bootstraps. Of course we cannot lift our self off the ground since we need a solid footing from which to lift, but in many life situations, we don’t always have a solid footing, and yet we are able to build anyway. The counseling field in Bhutan is being led by an incredible set of bootstrapping pioneers, courageous and big hearted individuals who are both the first counselors in Bhutan, and the leaders teaching and training the successive classes of new counselors. The next step, of course, is to offer a Master’s degree in Counseling right here in Samtse. That is what the counseling lecturers and I have been working on this semester. I am fully confident that in ten, even five years, we will look back to see a thriving counseling field, with more senior counselors supervising the newer counselors, and innovation coming right here in Bhutan to create a particularly Bhutanese style of counseling. The path to get there is a bit paradoxical, like bootstrapping, but is has already been successful, and now we have more ground to build the next step. CRC: What is the role of research in Counseling in Bhutan? MacAndrew: Research will be critical to get a true sense of what the people of Bhutan need as far as counseling services, and also to evaluate what is actually helpful. We see
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how important the research reports on suicide rates has been to spur policy and programmes to be developed in order to meet the challenges that suicide reveals. Similarly, research is needed to build our understanding of the emotional impacts of bullying, of domestic violence, of alcohol abuse, etc. These kinds of research go one step beyond simply identifying rates of a problem, but attempt to understand the mechanisms behind the phenomenon. Then interventions can be targeted for most benefit. And when you innovate programmes for intervention, research is crucial to assess how helpful it was after delivery. When you have such a scarce resource as counseling is right now in Bhutan, we need to make informed decisions about where to invest those resources in Bhutan in the next five to ten years, and research and programme evaluation will provide critical information in those decisions. CRC: What is the status of counseling field in Bhutan in terms of supervision and leadership? MacAndrew: As I alluded to earlier, the field is rapidly growing, but there are very few experienced counselors in the country right now. Counseling is an apprenticeship-based field, meaning that the real development of counselors comes from studying and learning with more experienced counselors, continuing through and after one receives the degree. Supervision formalizes this apprenticeship relationship in the counseling field. In supervision, the more senior counselor is considered responsible for the clients, even if the junior counselor is the one actually sitting in the room with the client. So in the United States, trainees routinely meet for an hour of supervision each week with their supervisor and they discuss the clients and get guidance for how to proceed with the work. Right now, this is very difficult to accomplish in Bhutan. Partly because there are so few qualified supervisors in the country, and partly because those who are qualified are spread across the country. Many of the recent graduates turn to the counseling lecturers of the diploma programme here at Samtse College for supervision well after they graduate. This is especially important because they do not have supervisors in their schools or workplaces with whom they can receive guidance. But all of this can start to change as these first generations of counselors receive more experience, and can themselves begin to offer assistance. The biggest step in supervision and leadership will be taken when the Master’s programme in Contemplative Psychotherapy begins to produce graduates. These graduates will have more experience, because they will have completed internships, and also because they will have advanced coursework. I return to the vision of Bhutan in five or ten years. In five years, the first graduates of the MA in Contemplative Psychotherapy will have already graduated and been in the field for one year. In ten years, these counselors will have been in the field for six years. Also, the Bhutan Board of Certified Counselors is forming now, and will begin to set standards for what a certified counselor will be. Eventually, it will likely also set standards for
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supervision: how frequently junior counselors are supervised, the qualifications of a supervisor and the like. I believe that it will also be critical to delineate different terms for different levels of training. For instance, now we have many people who are asked to take on the role of “counselor”. While the compassionate impulse behind each of these individuals is admirable, the training and experience of these individuals currently varies widely. As such, you have some “counselors” with Master’s degrees, some “counselors” with a post graduate diploma, some “counselors” with a workshop-only, and likely some “counselors” without any formal training. The field of counseling in Bhutan, led by the Bhutan Board of Certified Counselors, will need to take up defining these roles more clearly. This will help protect individual counselors from being asked to perform beyond their abilities, and also help inform schools, agencies, and the public about what they can expect of counselors of various levels of training. Right now, everyone is called a “counselor”, and this can be a bit confusing. In the future, the leadership in the counseling field can define the different roles, and assign different titles such as Counselor, Junior Counselor, and Counseling Assistant, for instance. CRC: What are your views on the role of counseling in Education? MacAndrew: I do not have much background in primary and secondary Education, so I will limit my comments here. Obviously teachers are often the first and main contact for students, and so teachers’ skill and compassion in conversations with students who are struggling is important. So teachers need to know something from the counseling field, and it is fairly standard for that to be a part of teacher training. And yet I am a strong advocate for differentiated roles between teacher and formal counselor. That is, students can be greatly helped by talking to their teachers about difficult emotional things, and yet for many students, they cannot be fully open with their teachers simply based on the role. This includes the obvious fact that teachers are in a position of evaluation, they give students grades, and thus students are understandably reluctant to share vulnerabilities for which they fear they might be judged and even graded down or suspended, or whatever. In the counseling field this is called a dual relationship, and is explicitly forbidden by ethical codes. So what is necessary is a body of teachers who are versed in counseling to handle the majority of front line interaction with children with the open heart that teachers are known for. And also there need to be separate counselors who are not also teachers, who the students can go to for counseling. Counseling relies on the confidentiality of the counseling relationship so that clients can reveal and discuss things that they feel they cannot discuss with a teacher or a parent even, without getting in trouble. Sexual relationships, drug and alcohol use, all of these things would be difficult to discuss with the main adults available to help the students. With
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a counselor, clients have a person with whom they can have these confidential conversations, and begin to be guided and helped. CRC: You are playing an instrumental role in the development of MA counseling programme for Samtse College of Education (SCE), what lessons from your international experience could be useful for SCE? MacAndrew: My first response to this question is that I admire the faculty and lecturers and administration here a great deal: the resourcefulness, intelligence, and heart with which everyone does their job. And Bhutan, of course, is extremely good at asking for help, consultation, and contribution from its friends, so this savvy is part of what will help in this new venture of the counseling Master’s degree. My second response is that the inner lives of the lecturers are where everything comes from. At Naropa, we are always concerned with “walking the walk” in addition to “talking the talk”. This means that we must embody the teachings, not just talk about them. So with Contemplative Education, and Contemplative Counseling, the faculty need to maintain their own contemplative practice, come to their own relationship with compassion, and this will be the most important teaching for the student. The Counseling lecturers here are contemplatives in their own right, on their own path with study, practice, and realisation of the contemplative truths in their own lives. The newly forming Contemplative Center here at Samtse College can be an important way to support and develop the practices for the faculty and students alike. Lastly, the growth and development of the Masters programme and the contemplative center here will be excellent opportunities to develop diligence, endurance, and patience, as all building projects require. And these three qualities also happen to be three of the six Paramitas, or great perfections, so cultivation of these qualities is quite excellent. CRC: What are the key aspects of growth and development in the Bhutanese Education System? What emerging challenges is the education system set to face? What innovations does the counseling programme suggest to address these challenges? MacAndrew: The main thing that comes to mind to me is the distribution of authority between student and teacher, strangely enough. The deference and hierarchical system of youth to elders is changing in Bhutan, and can be seen in government as well as the classroom. The model of teacher as the authority, delivering the material to the students, leaves all but the most mature and motivated students in a passive role with regard to their own learning. The contemplative model asks students to take responsibility for their own learning, to do the readings assigned and integrate it for themselves. The reverence for outside authority has its place in certain contexts however students need to feel their own
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intelligence, their own curiosity, and their own assertive thirst for knowledge. This can be seen as a kind of personal authority of their own intelligence. Students at Naropa have a big responsibility for their own learning. They must attend class and do the reading, yes, but this is only the beginning. Then they must reflect on it, and they need meditative space to see the knowledge in the most vast context. The teacher cannot do these last two parts for the student. The Buddha’s teaching on the four foundations of mindfulness identifies the three ways of knowing, or three prajnas, which comprise the complete method of understanding. Attending lectures, even reading and memorisation is simply the first of the three prajnas. The second involves the individual reflection and integration of what one has heard, discovering how it fits or does not fit with ones own experience. Students do not have to agree with what they hear or read, but they need to consider it for themselves and observe their own understanding as a result of that reflection. And the last part, meditation, is really important. This refers to the student taking up their own spiritual path and seeking out their own deeper experience of their nature, relationship with the divine, etc. This is a very transitional time in Bhutan with regard to this point. There is still an appreciation for the rich spiritual legacy, Buddhist but also Hindu, in the culture. This is not so in many cultures, so Bhutan retains an important heritage in this sense. And the programmes in the prayer halls are so important, the great teachings by the Khenpos recently are a perfect example of the promise of this. In the sessions I was able to attend of this programme, the Khenpo was discussing the common prayers that many Bhutanese say, and giving a deeper understanding of what it means, and how to connect with the prayers. The main point is that each individual can connect with their own contemplative practice right here in this life, today, in a way that makes life, and learning more rewarding. Finding ways to develop the culture of reading before class, so that class time can be more of an integration of the material, rather than simply delivering it, will be a key to the model of students assuming a more active part in their learning. For instance, in the classes that I teach at Naropa, the students are assigned a number of readings each week, approximately 75 pages per week in my class. They then are expected to write about 300 words of reflection on the readings. This reflection is not simply a restatement of the readings, but should show the interior engagement with the ideas. Is this true in my experience? What are my responses having reflected upon it? So the assignment is designed both to ensure that the students complete the readings, and also prompts them to reflect and integrate what their internal response it. Then, of course, I as faculty member, need to read these each week, and the students need to know that it matters whether or not they completed the assignments each week. Grading and regular feedback is important here. But with 33 students in the class, I tend to keep my comments brief, and only comment on about a third of the responses each week, but over time ensure that each student
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is receiving feedback. This is all facilitated by an online platform where the students post their reflections in a place that is visible to the other students in the course, organised by week. This is one example of a method for encouraging the first and second prajna for my students. Designing pedagogical methods for assignments which prompt students to read and reflect, could be an important part of the new Contemplative Center that I understand is being designed here at Samtse College. I look forward to seeing what this center will cultivate here. CRC: What in your opinion are the roles of contemplative counseling or contemplative education in Bhutan? MacAndrew: Counseling will not solve all the challenges that Bhutan is facing. It is inherently focused on small parts of the system, often the individual, and there are many systemic issues that need to be addressed systemically. For example, career counseling can help direct youth into more realistic jobs, but the continued growth and development of the economy will need to create more jobs in order for people’s sense of economic opportunity to change. Counseling can help one to accept challenging life circumstances, but other work on the life circumstances in Bhutan obviously needs to be done in tandem. And this is just one example. And yet, the rapid embrace of material progress in Bhutan comes with a delusion that is widespread in the globe, especially in developed countries. That delusion is an outward seeking of happiness in the material world. There are dharma teachings on happiness that help us to examine the promise and limits of material improvements in our lives, and contemplative counseling can help us find our way out of the delusion. Buddhism has teachings that help us to understand what are basic challenges of our lives, like impermanence, and help us to find acceptance of these truths. Many mistaken solutions to these ordinary sufferings create further problems, leading us to run down false paths. Some of these false paths, like using alcohol and drugs to numb ourselves, can lead us off a cliff if we are not careful! Contemplative education, like Contemplative Counseling, if it incorporates some of these teachings, some of these personal investigations into our own lives, can wake us up from our delusions, and point us toward our own wholesomeness such that we can develop more discipline around these false paths of the sensory world and make alternative choices. Bhutan is rapidly gaining access to technological and material improvements, and contemplative counseling and contemplative education, can provide the clarity needed to prevent these improvements from becoming a Trojan horse trap in our lives. CRC: Finally how optimistic are you about the counseling programme in Bhutan?
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MacAndrew: I am extremely optimistic about the counseling master’s programme, and the field of counseling in Bhutan. The lecturers and counselors here at Samtse College, Dechen Doma, Karma Gayphel, and Wangchuk Dorji, all have something great to contribute to the field. And the sense of care for the people of Bhutan among the counselors reflects the compassionate intelligence that is naturally present in all of us. We can take great confidence in this programme, and Samtse College will be able to take much pride in the counseling programmes, even attracting international students from the region. When this programme gets underway, it has the capacity to be a leader in the college, and a beacon of the richness that is offered here.
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About the author MACANDREW JACK, a psychologist in Boulder, is a leading clinician, educator, and writer in the integration of Buddhist psychology and meditation with psychotherapy. He is a long time Buddhist practitioner, and is apprenticing to become an Authorised Teacher with Lama Tsultrim. MacAndrew received his doctorate in Clinical Psychology with a focus on mindbody integration. Interested in the interface of psychology and medicine, MacAndrew worked at Temple Hospital on their heart and kidney transplant teams before becoming a Clinical Fellow at Harvard Medical School. MacAndrew is a core faculty member in the Contemplative Psychotherapy and Buddhist Psychology graduate programme at Naropa University, where he has also served as the Founding Dean of the Graduate School of Psychology. MacAndrew also co-founded the Naropa Center for Bhutan Partnerships, and has helped to establish the first Bhutanese degree programmes in counseling at the Royal University of Bhutan. MacAndrew maintains an active private practice in Boulder serving adults, couples and families.
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