Theoretical Computer Science 411 (2010) 3787–3794

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Strong order-preserving renaming in the synchronous message passing model Michael Okun 1 Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel

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Article history: Received 7 September 2007 Received in revised form 16 May 2010 Accepted 1 June 2010 Communicated by P. Spirakis Keywords: Renaming Approximate agreement Wait-free computation Crash failures Message passing systems

abstract In [14] Chaudhuri et al. (1999) presented a strong, wait-free renaming algorithm for a synchronous message passing system with crash failures, which runs in an optimal O(log n) time, where n is the number of initially participating processors. Here, we extend their work by presenting a renaming algorithm which has similar characteristics and in addition is order-preserving. The new algorithm is based on an approximate agreement protocol. © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Consider a distributed system consisting of a fully connected network of processors. Each processor is assumed to have a unique identifier (id) from an unbounded domain, where initially every processor knows only its own id. The processors are not reliable, i.e., each processor might crash at any time. In the renaming problem every processor is provided with an input bit which indicates whether it has to participate in the renaming protocol. Each participating processor has to choose a unique new name from a target namespace whose size must depend only on the number of participating processors, by means of exchanging messages with other processors. It can also be required that the original order between any two processors p and q be preserved, i.e., if the original name of p is higher than that of q, then the new name of p must also be higher than the new name of q. Renaming is required in various distributed management tasks, as discussed in detail in [4]. From theoretical viewpoint, the renaming problem represents the essence of symmetry breaking, the simplest non-trivial distributed coordination task. The problem was extensively studied (see Section 2), mainly in the asynchronous case, closely related to several fundamental questions regarding asynchronous computability. Somewhat surprisingly, the renaming problem in the synchronous message passing model with crash failures was studied only by Chaudhuri et al. [21,14]. Their paper presents a comparison-based algorithm with O(log n) running time, where n is the number of participating processors. However, their algorithm does not guarantee that the new processor names preserve the order imposed by their original ids. Thus, so far, the fastest known way to perform order-preserving renaming in synchronous message passing system was by reaching a consensus on the set of ids of the processors, and then letting each processor decide on the rank of its own id in the set. However, it is well known that consensus requires Ω (n) time, e.g., see [23,8]. The present paper extends the previous result of Chaudhuri et al. [14], by presenting a (comparison-based) renaming algorithm which is order-preserving and runs in O(log n) time. The central idea of our approach is to use approximate agreement algorithm to converge to the new names. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time approximate agreement is applied to solve the renaming problem. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]. 1 Present address: Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, United Kingdom. 0304-3975/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tcs.2010.06.001

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1.1. Paper organization The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents an overview of previous works on the renaming and approximate agreement problems. In Section 3 the formal definitions of the computational model and the two problems are presented. Section 4 presents the version of approximate agreement protocol used in our renaming algorithm. Section 5 presents the renaming algorithm itself. Conclusions are given in Section 6. 2. Related previous work 2.1. Renaming in asynchronous models The renaming problem was originally introduced in [4] for asynchronous message passing model with crash failures. This landmark paper presented a simple renaming algorithm with a target namespace of size (n − t /2)(t + 1), followed by a more intricate algorithm with a target namespace of size (n + t ), and an order-preserving algorithm with a target namespace of size 2t (n − t + 1) − 1, where t is an upper bound on the number of processors that may crash during the execution. The last result was also shown to be tight. The renaming problem was most extensively studied in the asynchronous shared-memory model, first in the original one-shot setting [11,12], and then in the long-lived version [25], where processors request and release the new names dynamically. In this case, the splitter object was used to solve the problem, an approach which was subsequently used in several follow up papers. More recently, both the one-shot and the long-lived versions of the problem were studied in the adaptive setting, where the number of participating processors k, is not known in advance [2,3,6,7,13]. In this setting the goal is to develop efficient wait-free algorithms whose target namespace and complexity depend only on k. The question of the minimum possible target namespace in the asynchronous renaming was settled by the groundbreaking work of Herlihy and Shavit [20], as a special variant of their Asynchronous Computability Theorem. They have shown that (n + t ) is the smallest possible namespace for tolerating t failures in an asynchronous environment, for both the shared-memory and the message passing models. 2.2. Renaming in synchronous models The renaming problem in the synchronous message passing model with crash failures was studied in [14], which presented a wait-free O(log n)-round algorithm with the optimal target namespace of size n. It is also shown that for comparison-based algorithms this running time is optimal. The basic idea of the algorithm in [14] is to repeatedly split the processors into smaller groups. The new name is constructed one bit at a time, where processors with the same name are defined to form a group. Eventually every processor ends up in a group of its own, which implies that it has a unique new name. To split a group, processors whose original id belongs to the lower half of the ids of all the processors in the group append 0 to their (new) name, while the processors in the upper half append 1. This procedure is not order-preserving, since when crashes occur it is possible that a processor appends 0, while another processor from the same group, with a smaller original id, appends 1. By contrast, the renaming algorithm presented in the present paper uses a rather different approach, based on reaching an approximate agreement on the position of each original id among all the others. Each processor’s new name is the position of its own id, rounded to the nearest integer. Therefore our algorithm does not run into a similar problem. The renaming problem in the synchronous setting was also investigated for Byzantine failures, in which case it can be solved only if less than 1/3 of the processors are faulty [27,28]. The renaming problem in the semi-synchronous model was studied in [5]. The semi-synchronous model assumes that there is a known upper bound on the amount of time till the messages of a correct processor are received, and that the amount of time it takes a correct processor to perform a computational step has known upper and lower bounds. The results presented in [5] include a renaming algorithm (which is a simulation of the synchronous algorithm from [14] on top of the semi-synchronous model) and a lower bound for renaming in the semi-synchronous model. The lower bound is proved first for a comparison-based algorithm and then extended to a general algorithm in a system with unbounded (or sufficiently large) original namespace, using a technique from [19]. The lower bound extension from comparison-based to general algorithm presented in [5] applies to the synchronous model as well. Since a lower bound of Ω (log n) rounds for comparison-based synchronous algorithms was already established in [14], it follows that for an unbounded (or sufficiently large) original namespace domain, any synchronous renaming algorithm requires Ω (log n) computation time. In particular, this observation implies that the algorithm presented in the current work is asymptotically optimal. 2.3. Approximate agreement The Approximate Agreement (AA) problem was introduced in [15,16], which also presented solutions for the synchronous and asynchronous cases of the problem in the presence of Byzantine failures, for n > 3t and n > 5t cases, respectively. An asynchronous AA protocol that works for n > 3t was presented in [1]. Optimal convergence rates for crash, omission

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and Byzantine failures in the synchronous model were studied in [17] (for omission resilient algorithms see also [30]). Corresponding results for crash and omission failures in the asynchronous model are presented in [18]. Hybrid AA algorithms that tolerate different kinds of failures simultaneously, were investigated in [22,9,10,29]. A closely related problem of inexact agreement was introduced in [24]. Both AA and inexact agreement algorithms can be used as a building block in clock synchronization algorithms [24,16,31]. The AA protocol used here is similar to the average-based AA algorithm in [15]. Note, however, that whereas the algorithm in [15] deals with Byzantine failures, the present algorithm is designed for crash failures only. Correspondingly, it uses a simpler averaging scheme, which does not have to handle the Byzantine failures case. An additional difference is that [15,16] assume a model is which arbitrary real values can be handled by the processors, while we are going to explicitly derive the (finite) precision with which real numbers must be represented. 3. Definitions 3.1. System model The computation model considered in this paper is synchronous message passing in a fully connected network of processors prone to crash failures, e.g., see the textbooks [23,8]. Briefly this model can be described as follows. There are N processors, p1 , . . . , pN , each modeled by a state machine. The state machines of all the processors are identical. Each pair of processors is connected by a bidirectional communication channel, allowing message exchange. The execution is partitioned into rounds, where each round consists of two phases. In the send phase every processor is allowed to send a message on each of its channels. The send phase is followed by the receive phase in which a processor can get the message sent to it in the current round on every one of its channels. In both phases unlimited internal computations are allowed. Communication channels do not preserve messages across rounds. Any processor may experience a crash failure, which means that the processor sends no messages in the rounds following the one in which it crashed. Furthermore, in the round in which the processor crashes it might fail to send some of its messages. A processor is said to be active in a round if it sends any messages in that round. A processor that does not crash is called correct. 3.2. Renaming In the renaming problem each processor receives a unique input, which is regarded as its identifier (original name). The set of possible identifiers (ids) is infinite. Comparison is the only operation allowed to be performed on the original ids of the processors. An additional input provided to the processors is a single true/false bit indicating whether it has to participate in the renaming procedure. The goal of the renaming algorithm is to assign each participating processor a new name from a domain of size that depends only the number of participating processors. More formally the requirements of the renaming problem are as follows (see [4]). (Termination) Each correct processor must eventually decide on a new name from a target namespace of size which depends only on n, the number of participating processors. (Uniqueness) No two correct processors decide on the same new name. Order-preserving is a stronger version of the uniqueness condition (and the one we are interested in). (Order-preserving) The new names of the correct processors preserve the linear order imposed by their original identifiers. The special case in which the size of the target namespace is (exactly) equal to n is called strong renaming [21]. 3.3. Approximate agreement As was already noted before, our renaming algorithm exploits approximate agreement as its core building block. In the approximate agreement task each processor starts with a real value as its input. For an a priori fixed  > 0, the following conditions have to be fulfilled (see [15,16]). (Termination) Each correct processor p eventually decides on a value vp ∈ R. (Agreement) For any two correct processors p and q it holds that |vp − vq | ≤  . (Validity) For any correct processor p, there must exist processors whose initial values u1 and u2 satisfy u1 ≤ vp ≤ u2 . 4. Approximate agreement This section presents the Approximate Agreement (AA) protocol upon which our renaming algorithm is based. The protocol is similar to the average-based AA algorithm in [15]. Unlike the algorithm in [15], which deals with Byzantine failures, the present algorithm is designed for crash failures only. This allows us to use a simpler averaging scheme, which will also be appropriate for its use in our renaming algorithm. In each round of the AA algorithm every processor sends to all the other processors (broadcasts) its present value, and then replaces it by the arithmetic average of all the values received (lines 2–3, Algorithm 1). For the analysis of Algorithm 1 the following notations, adopted from [15,16], are used. A finite multiset U of real numbers is viewed as a function U : R → N,

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Algorithm 1 Approximate agreement protocol.

Initialization: 1

get an input value v

In each round: 2 3

broadcast v set v to the arithmetic average of all the values received in the current round

Stop after performing the above for a number of rounds which guarantees a precision of  (see Theorem 1). where U (P x) (for some xP∈ R) denotes the number of times x appears in U. Thus, the cardinality of U, denoted by |U |, is given by x∈R U (x) = u∈U 1. The minimal and the maximal values that appear in U are denoted by min(U ) and max(U ), respectively. The diameter of the multiset, namely max(U ) − min(U ), is denoted by σ (U ). For two multisets U and V their difference, V , is defined by W (x) = max (U (x) − V (x), 0). Finally, the mean of the multiset, mean(U ), is defined P W = U \P to be u∈U u/|U | = x∈R xU (x)/|U |. Since a processor has to broadcast a message in every round, a processor that is not active must have crashed in some previous round. For r ≥ 1, let Ur denote the (multiset of) values that the processors which are active in round r have in the beginning of that round. Lemma 1. If the fraction of processors active in round r that remain active in round r + 1 (i.e., they do not crash) exceeds 1 − δ , δ then σ (Ur +1 ) ≤ 12−δ σ (Ur ). Proof. Let U ⊆ Ur be the multiset of values that belong to processors that are active in round r + 1, which in particular implies that all their round r messages are received. A processor p that does not crash in round r receives all the values inPU, and some P multisubset W of the values in Ur \ U. Therefore the value of p in the end of round r is given by ( u∈U u + w∈W w)/(|U | + |W |). It holds that

w

P

w

P

(w − min(Ur )) u∈U w∈W = min(Ur ) + |U | + |W | |U | + | W | P (u − min(Ur )) + |W |σ (Ur ) |W | δ u∈U = mean(U ) + σ (Ur ) ≤ mean(U ) + σ (Ur ). ≤ min(Ur ) + |U | |U | 1−δ

P

u+

P

w∈W

u∈U

(u − min(Ur )) +

P

(max(Ur ) − u) +

P

Similarly,

P u∈U

u+

P w∈W

u∈U

w∈W

(max(Ur ) − w)

= max(Ur ) − |U | + |W | P (max(Ur ) − u) + |W |σ (Ur ) |W | δ u∈U ≥ max(Ur ) − = mean(U ) − σ (Ur ) ≥ mean(U ) − σ (Ur ). |U | |U | 1−δ |U | + |W |

δ Therefore, in the beginning of round r + 1 the values of all the active processors are at a distance of at most 1−δ σ (Ur ) from mean(U ), which proves the lemma. 

Theorem 1. For any  > 0, after O (log(σ (U1 )/) + log n) rounds, the values of all the active processors belong to an interval of length  . Proof. Partition the rounds into two types, one in which at least 1/10 of the active processors crash, and the other with the rest of the rounds. The number of rounds of the first type is bounded by O(log n). It is easy to see that in these rounds the diameter of the multiset of the values of all active processors does not increase. According to Lemma 1, in every round of the second type, the diameter of the multiset of values is reduced to at most 2/9 of the previous one. Together, these two facts prove the theorem.  When the input values to the algorithm are not bounded, the algorithm does not have a termination point. However, if the input values belong to an a priori known finite interval, Theorem 1 gives a number of rounds which guarantees the required convergence accuracy. Since the arithmetic averaging used by the algorithm clearly satisfies the validity property (see Section 3.3), the proof of the correctness of Algorithm 1 is complete.

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4.1. Finite precision representation of the values In previous works on AA it was customary to assume that the real numbers are represented with infinite precision, which is impossible in any practical implementation. Consider a version of the AA algorithm in which all the real numbers are represented in a binary format, with L bits representing the fractional part. We will compare the values in this finite precision version of the algorithm to the ‘‘exact’’ values in the infinite precision version, and show that in any possible execution of the algorithm the deviation introduced by the round off is negligible. Theorem 2. At the beginning of round r ≥ 1 the distance between the exact value and the finite precision value (of any processor) is at most r2−L . Proof. The proof is by induction on the round number r. For r = 1 the claim holds according to the assumption. For the induction, let a1 , . . . , al denote the exact values received in round r + 1, and let a01 , . . . , a0l be their counterparts in the finite precision case. The calculation of the mean involves two arithmetic operations: summing up all the values and then dividing them by l. Let A denote the result using the finite precision operations. No precision is lost during the summation. Pl 0 −L However, the division operation might introduce a round-off error of 2−L , i.e., |A − m=1 am /l| ≤ 2 . Furthermore, by

Pl Pl Pl |a0 − am |/l ≤ r2−L . Together, the two inequalities imply a /l| ≤ a0 /l − Pl m=10 m Pl m=1 0 m Pl m=1 m −L m=1 am /l| ≤ |A − m=1 am /l| + | m=1 am /l − m=1 am /l| ≤ (r + 1)2 . 

the induction assumption |

Pl

|A −

In particular, for L = c · (log(σ (U1 )/) + log n) (where c is a sufficiently high constant), the round-off error after O (log(σ (U1 )/) + log n) rounds (the bound in Theorem 1) is O(). Therefore, to agree on values that are at most  apart, it is sufficient to use a finite precision representation of O (log(σ (U1 )/) + log n) bits. 4.2. Concurrent composition of the approximate agreement protocol It is possible to extend the algorithm presented above to handle the case in which the input to each processor is a k-dimensional vector of values v 1 , . . . , v k and an AA has to be achieved (separately) for each entry of this vector, where each value is assumed to belong to an interval of some a priori known length. The obvious solution for this task is to execute k instances of Algorithm 1, where the input to the ith instance is v i . In such an execution the messages of the individual instances are concatenated to form a composite message, the ith entry of which corresponds to the message of the ith instance. Since all the entries of the input vectors have the same input domain, every processor participates in all the instances for exactly the same number of rounds. The parallel composition of our AA protocol satisfies the following property, which will be important for the renaming protocol. Theorem 3. Let f be a convex function. Suppose that for every processor it holds that v i − v j ≥ f (v j ), where v i and v j are the ith and jth components of its input vector, respectively. It follows that for every correct processor di − dj ≥ f (dj ), where di and dj denote the decision values of the processor in ith and jth instances. Proof. The proof is by induction on the round number. We are going to show that the values in instances i and j of every active processor satisfy the inequality throughout the execution of the protocol. Let bi and bj denote the values of some processor p in the end of round r + 1, in the ith and jth instances, respectively. The value of bi (bj ) is the average of all the values received in that round in instance i (j). Let bi1 , . . . , bil denote the values received by p in i’s instance of the AA protocol in round r + 1. Since the values of every processor for all the instances j of AA are delivered in a single (composite) message, for every bim (1 ≤ m ≤ l) there is a corresponding value bm which was received from the same processor, in j’s instance of the AA protocol, and vice versa. Furthermore, by the induction Pl Pl Pl Pl j j j j j assumption bim − bm ≥ f (bm ). It follows that bi − bj = m=1 bim /l − m=1 bm /l = m=1 (bim − bm )/l ≥ m=1 f (bm )/l ≥ f(

Pl

m=1

j

bm /l) = f (bj ). The last inequality is a special case of Jensen’s inequality for convex functions. 

One particularly important special case of Theorem 3 is when the function f is identically equal to some constant. 5. The renaming algorithm This section presents a strong order-preserving renaming algorithm for the synchronous message passing model. The intuition behind this algorithm (Algorithm 2) is as follows. In the first three rounds the processors exchange their ids (see lines 1–3). Starting from round 4, an instance of the Approximate Agreement (AA) protocol, presented in Section 4, is performed for each processor’s id. The concurrent execution of the instances is performed as discussed in Section 4.2. A composite message in this concurrent execution includes for every instance the corresponding processor id, followed by the current value in that instance. The goal of running the AA protocol is to agree on the ranks of the ids. The initial input of a processor to an instance which corresponds to an id α , is the rank of α among all the other ids (lines 4–6, for now disregard the C 2 /C 3 factor which multiplies the ranks, the purpose of this factor will be explained later on). To see how this might work, let β > α be the

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consecutive id. Different processors might have distinct initial inputs for α ’s instance of the AA protocol, due to the failure of a processor whose id is below α (or several such processors). Then, for example, p’s initial input value in α ’s instance can be 6, while q’s input value is 7. It is important to note, however, that the inputs of every processor to the different instances of the AA protocol are consistent: in the above example p’s initial input value to the β ’s instance is 7, while q’s input value is 8. Therefore, Theorem 3 implies that the decision value of every processor in α ’s instance will be lower than its decision value in β ’s instance by at least 1. The new name is decided upon by rounding the final value in the instance of AA which corresponds to the processor’s own id. Typically the new names of different processors will be distinct. However, it might happen that the final value of the processor with id α in α ’s instance of the AA protocol is slightly above l − 1/2 (and its final value in β ’s instance is slightly above l + 1/2), while the final value of the processor with id β in β ’s instance is slightly below l + 1/2, where l is some integer. In this case both processors will decide on l. The scenario in which two processors decide on the same new name can happen only as a result of crashes in the first rounds of the algorithm. To handle this case, the initial input values are obtained by multiplying the ranks of the ids by C 2 /C 3 (see line 5), which is the number of participating processors observed in the second round divided by the number of such processors observed in the third round. Because the C 2 /C 3 ratio is higher than 1 when a processor observes crashes between the second and the third rounds, it is ensured that no collisions of the kind described above can occur. The following lemmas provide a formal proof of the correctness of the algorithm. Algorithm 2 Order-preserving renaming algorithm for processor with id α0 .

In each of 1

the first 3 rounds (rounds 1, 2, 3):

broadcast α0

In the end of round 3: 2 3

let C i be the number of different ids received in round i (i = 1, 2, 3) let V be the set of the ids received in round 3

Starting from round 4: 4 5

6

FOR every α ∈ V participate in α ’s instance of AA protocol (Algorithm 1), 2 with initial value CC 3 · rankV (α), for a number of rounds which is sufficient to converge to an interval of length  = 0.1/C 2 END

Upon completion of the AA protocols: 7

Round the final value in α0 ’s instance of the AA protocol (i.e., the instance that corresponds to the processor’s own id) to the nearest integer. Decide on this number.

Lemma 2. Let β > α be two ids belonging to correct processors. The decision of every correct processor in α ’s instance of the AA protocol is lower than its decision in β ’s instance by at least 1. Proof. The initial value of any processor which is active in round 4 for α ’s instance of AA is lower than its initial value for β ’s instance by at least 1. The claim follows directly from Theorem 3 if the convex function is taken to be identically equal to 1.  2 Next, observe that C i of any processor is higher than C i+1 of any other processor. We let Cmin denote the minimal value of C 2 among all the processors which are active in round 4.

Lemma 3. Suppose that for every active processor in round 4, C 2 > C 3 . Let β > α be two ids belonging to correct processors. The 2 decision of every correct processor in α ’s instance of the AA protocol is lower than its decision in β ’s instance by at least 1 + 1/Cmin . Proof. From the assumptions and the algorithm it directly follows that the initial value of any processor in the α ’s instance 2 of AA is lower than its initial value in β ’s instance by at least 1 + 1/C 3 . Furthermore, C 3 ≤ Cmin , which implies 1 + 1/C 3 ≥ 2 1 + 1/Cmin . As in the previous lemma, Theorem 3 implies the claim, if the convex function is taken to be identically equal to 2 1 + 1/Cmin . 

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Lemma 4. Suppose that there exists a processor p0 that is active in round 4, for which C 2 = C 3 . Let β > α be two ids belonging to correct processors. For every correct processor 2 b − a ≥ 1 + min(a − bac, dae − a)/Cmin ,

where a and b are its decisions in α ’s and β ’s instances of the AA protocol, respectively. Proof. Let A denote the initial value of p0 in α ’s instance of the AA protocol, which is also equal to the rank of α in the set V of p0 . To prove the lemma we will show that a and b satisfy 2 b − a ≥ 1 + |A − a|/Cmin .

(1)

Since A is an integer, it is easy to see that (1) implies the inequality in the lemma. Let p be any processor active in round 4. For p it holds that rankV (α) ≤ A, since otherwise p0 must have observed crashes between the second and the third rounds, contrary to the assumption that p0 has C 2 = C 3 . On the other hand, p observes at least A − rankV (α) crashes between the second and the third rounds, i.e., for p it holds that C 2 − C 3 ≥ A − rankV (α). Let a0 and b0 denote p’s initial values in α ’s and β ’s instances of the AA protocol, respectively. That is, a0 = rankV (α)C 2 /C 3 and b0 = rankV (β)C 2 /C 3 . We consider two possible cases. (i) a0 ≥ A. In this case we get b 0 − a0 =

C2

C2

C

C3

(rankV (β) − rankV (α)) ≥ 3

=

a0 rankV (α)



a0 A

=1+

| A − a0 | A

≥1+

| A − a0 | 2 Cmin

.

(ii) a0 < A. Here we have b 0 − a0 =

C2 C3

(rankV (β) − rankV (α)) ≥

C2 C3

=1+

C2 − C3 C3

≥1+

A − rankV (α) C3

≥1+

|A − a0 | C3

≥1+

|A − a0 | 2 Cmin

.

2 Hence, we have just shown that b0 − a0 ≥ f (a0 ), where f (x) = 1 + |A − x|/Cmin . Since the function f (x) is convex, Theorem 3 implies (1), which completes the proof of the lemma. 

Before proving the correctness of Algorithm 2, we make the following observations: (1) It is possible that only some of the correct processors take part in an instance of the AA protocol. This happens if a processor crashes in the third round, so that just the processors that receive its round 3 message participate in the instance which corresponds to its id, while others do not. Obviously the correctness of the algorithm does not depend on AA instances corresponding to ids of crashed processors. In fact, to improve the performance, it is possible to modify Algorithm 2 so that whenever a processor observes that another processor has crashed, it stops participating in the instance of AA which corresponds to the id of that crashed processor. (2) A processor determines the number of rounds for which the AA protocol is performed according to the diameter of the interval which contains the initial values of all the participating processors, the number of participating processors and the required precision (see Theorem 1). While these three parameters are not known to the processors, each processor has a bound for each one of the parameters. Specifically, for every processor it holds that all the initial values are within [1, C 1 ], the number of participating processors is C 3 at most, and the desired precision is not higher than 0.1/C 2 . Since these bounds are not necessarily the same among the processors, distinct correct processors might execute the AA protocols for a different 2 number of rounds. This does not pose a problem, because a precision of 0.1/Cmin is achieved in all the instances of the AA protocols by the first round in which correct processors stop. In the following rounds this precision is preserved, despite the fact that some processors crash or stop. Lemma 5. Algorithm 2 solves the strong, order-preserving renaming problem. Proof. Let α and β be ids belonging to two correct processors, such that β > α . There are two mutually exclusive cases. In the first case all the active processors in round 4 observe at least one failure between the second and the third rounds. 2 By Lemma 3, the decision values of every processor in α ’s and β ’s instances of the AA protocol differ by at least 1 + 1/Cmin . Therefore, the decision value of processor with original id α in the instance corresponding to its own id, and the decision 2 value of processor with original id β in β ’s instance differ by at least 1 + 0.9/Cmin . It follows that the two processors decide on distinct new names. In the second case there exists some processor, active in round 4, that did not observe any crashes between the second and the third rounds. Let a denote the decision value of processor with id α in the AA protocol instance corresponding to its own id, and let b denote its decision in the instance of AA corresponding to id β . If a is not close to being midway between two integers, Lemma 2 implies that processor with id β decides on a higher new name. Otherwise (for concreteness assume 2 2 0.3 < a − bac < 0.7), Lemma 4 implies that b − a ≥ 1 + 0.3/Cmin . Again, it follows that an error of  ≤ 0.1/Cmin due to the imprecision of AA guarantees that processor with id β will not decide on the same name as does the processor with id α . From the algorithm it directly follows that all the initial input values to the AA protocols are between 1 and the number of participating processors and that the order imposed by the original ids is preserved. Therefore, the algorithm satisfies all the requirements for strong, order-preserving renaming. 

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Finally, we observe that it suffices to represent the real numbers in the AA protocol by O(log n/(0.1/n)+ log n) = O(log n) bits, as discussed in Section 4.1. Thus, we have proved the following. Theorem 4. There exists a comparison-based algorithm that solves the strong, wait-free, order-preserving renaming problem in the synchronous message passing model in O(log n) rounds, where n is the number of participating processors. The algorithm has O(n2 log n) message complexity, with messages that are O(nS + n log n) bits long, where S denotes the size of the original ids. 6. Conclusions This paper presented an efficient, strong, order-preserving, wait-free renaming algorithm for a synchronous message passing system with crash failures. The algorithm is based on approximate agreement protocol, and it runs in an optimal O(log n) time, where n is the number of processors that initially participate in the algorithm. The presented algorithm extends a previous work of Chaudhuri, Herlihy and Tuttle, in which a renaming algorithm that does not guarantee order preservation was constructed [21,14]. The present work can be extended to design order-preserving renaming algorithms for less benign failure models, e.g, the semi-synchronous model [5] or synchronous system with Byzantine failures [26–28]. References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31]

Ittai Abraham, Yonatan Amit, Danny Dolev, Optimal resilience asynchronous approximate agreement, in: OPODIS, 2004, pp. 229–239. Yehuda Afek, Hagit Attiya, Arie Fouren, Gideon Stupp, Dan Touitou, Long-lived renaming made adaptive, in: PODC, 1999, pp. 91–103. Yehuda Afek, Michael Merritt, Fast, wait-free (2k − 1)-renaming, in: PODC, 1999, pp. 105–112. Hagit Attiya, Amotz Bar-Noy, Danny Dolev, David Peleg, Rüdiger Reischuk, Renaming in an asynchronous environment, J. ACM 37 (3) (1990) 524–548. Hagit Attiya, Taly Djerassi-Shintel, Time bounds for decision problems in the presence of timing uncertainty and failures, J. Parallel Distrib. Comput. 61 (8) (2001) 1096–1109. Hagit Attiya, Arie Fouren, Polynomial and adaptive long-lived (2k − 1)-renaming, in: DISC, 2000, pp. 149–163. Hagit Attiya, Arie Fouren, Adaptive and efficient algorithms for lattice agreement and renaming, SIAM J. Comput. 31 (2) (2001) 642–664. Hagit Attiya, Jennifer L. Welch, Distributed Computing: Fundamentals, Simulations and Advanced Topics, McGraw-Hill, 1998. Mohammad H. Azadmanesh, Roger M. Kieckhafer, New hybrid fault models for asynchronous approximate agreement, IEEE Trans. Comput. 45 (4) (1996) 439–449. Mohammad H. Azadmanesh, Roger M. Kieckhafer, Exploiting omissive faults in synchronous approximate agreement, IEEE Trans. Comput. 49 (10) (2000) 1031–1042. Amotz Bar-Noy, Danny Dolev, A partial equivalence between shared-memory and message-passing in an asynchronous fail-stop distributed environment, Math. Syst. Theory 26 (1) (1993) 21–39. Elizabeth Borowsky, Eli Gafni, Immediate atomic snapshots and fast renaming, in: PODC, 1993, pp. 41–51. Alex Brodsky, Faith Ellen, Philipp Woelfel, Fully-adaptive algorithms for long-lived renaming, in: DISC, 2006, pp. 413–427. Soma Chaudhuri, Maurice Herlihy, Mark R. Tuttle, Wait-free implementations in message-passing systems, Theoret. Comput. Sci. 220 (1) (1999) 211–245. Danny Dolev, Nancy A. Lynch, Shlomit S. Pinter, Eugene W. Stark, William E. Weihl, Reaching approximate agreement in the presence of faults, in: Symposium on Reliability in Distributed Software and Database Systems, 1983, pp. 145–154. Danny Dolev, Nancy A. Lynch, Shlomit S. Pinter, Eugene W. Stark, William E. Weihl, Reaching approximate agreement in the presence of faults, J. ACM 33 (3) (1986) 499–516. Alan Fekete, Asymptotically optimal algorithms for approximate agreement, Distrib. Comput. 4 (1990) 9–29. Alan Fekete, Asynchronous approximate agreement, Inf. Comput. 115 (1) (1994) 95–124. Greg N. Frederickson, Nancy A. Lynch, Electing a leader in a synchronous ring, J. ACM 34 (1) (1987) 98–115. Maurice Herlihy, Nir Shavit, The topological structure of asynchronous computability, J. ACM 46 (6) (1999) 858–923. Maurice Herlihy, Mark R. Tuttle, Lower bounds for wait-free computation in message-passing systems (wait-free computation in message-passing systems: preliminary report), in: PODC, 1990, pp. 347–362. Roger M. Kieckhafer, Mohammad H. Azadmanesh, Reaching approximate agreement with mixed-mode faults, IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst. 5 (1) (1994) 53–63. Nancy A. Lynch, Distributed Algorithms, Morgan Kaufmann, 1996. Stephen R. Mahaney, Fred B. Schneider, Inexact agreement: Accuracy, precision, and graceful degradation, in: PODC, 1985, pp. 237–249. Mark Moir, James H. Anderson, Wait-free algorithms for fast, long-lived renaming, Sci. Comput. Program. 25 (1) (1995) 1–39. Michael Okun, Agreement among unacquainted Byzantine generals, in: DISC, 2005, pp. 499–500. Michael Okun, Amnon Barak, Renaming in message passing systems with Byzantine failures, in: DISC, 2006, pp. 16–30. Michael Okun, Amnon Barak, Eli Gafni, Renaming in synchronous message passing systems with Byzantine failures, Distrib. Comput. 20 (6) (2008) 403–413. Richard Plunkett, Alan Fekete, Approximate agreement with mixed mode faults: Algorithm and lower bound, in: DISC, 1998, pp. 333–346. Richard Plunkett, Alan Fekete, Optimal approximate agreement with omission faults, in: ISAAC, 1998, pp. 467–475. Jennifer L. Welch, Nancy A. Lynch, A new fault-tolerance algorithm for clock synchronization, Inf. Comput. 77 (1) (1988) 1–36.

Strong order-preserving renaming in the synchronous ...

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