Quality Monitoring of Network Traffic Forecasts using Statistical Process Control

Rivalino Matias Jr.

Lúcio Borges de Araújo & Mirian F. C. Araújo

School of Computer Science Federal University of Uberlândia Uberlândia, Brazil [email protected]

School of Mathematics Federal University of Uberlândia Uberlândia, Brazil {lucio,mirian}@famat.ufu.br

Abstract— The literature of network traffic analysis has investigated different forecasting methods applied to traffic engineering in computer and communication networks. Several sophisticated models have been proposed, evaluated and compared, showing very good results in many empirical or controlled studies. In general, network traffic forecasting can be conducted in an offline or online manner. An important aspect in both approaches is the quality control of the obtained predictions. This paper is focused on the quality control of online network traffic forecasts. We present a statistical process control based approach in order to keep in control online predictions of different network traffics. Our proposal is based on a combination of CUSUM and Shewhart control charts. We evaluate the proposed method using four different traffic samples collected from real LAN, MAN e WAN network environments. Network traffic analysis; forecasting; quality control; control charts

I. INTRODUCTION The complexity of computer and communication networks has increased on a daily basis. Not only the variety, but also the volume of data to process during network planning, management, and operation activities is very large. This challengeable scenario has forced traffic engineering [1] to search for new methods to analyze network data in an online manner. The field of network traffic analysis has making significant progress, particularly in network traffic forecasting. The research advances in this area are easily observed in the literature (e.g., [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7]), where new methods to analyze and predict network traffic are continually emerging. Forecasting involves making projections about future on the basis of historical and current data. Decision making is an integral part of network management and operation processes, and forecasting may reduce decision risk by supplying consistent information about the possible future events. In general, the forecasting methods can be executed either offline (e.g., [2], [3]) or online (e.g., [7], [8]). The first approach is the most common employed, where the traffic engineer uses the collected traffic data in conjunction with general-purpose statistical software, such as R project or SPSS, to perform data analysis and forecasting. This approach is very useful mainly for planning purposes, however, for network operation activities online data analysis and prediction are essentials. Online forecasting is a

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real-time continuous process, requiring not only robust traffic measurement and storing instrumentations as well as a flexible statistical engine able to perform real-time numerical analysis based on different data sources (e.g., databases, text files, running processes, etc.). In addition, a data grapher is also required to continuously display the prediction results. An important aspect of an online real-time network traffic forecasting solution is the quality control of its predictions, which must also be a continuous process. The forecasting results will serve as input for decision making in several network operation and management tasks, thus their quality is a major requirement. Although its importance, quality control of network traffic forecasting has not been discussed in previous studies. Hence, in order to contribute with the body of knowledge in this area, we propose a quantitative method, based on statistical process control techniques, in order to control the quality of network traffic predictions. We work under the following assumptions. The network traffic predictions are estimated as an online continuous process. Thus, its quality control is primarily an automatic process executed in realtime without online supervision. The proposal evaluation is based on predictions obtained from classic forecasting models, which have shown (e.g., [2], [5]) acceptable prediction errors when used against real network traffic samples and are no so costly to employ in many practical scenarios. The traffic samples used in this study come from real LAN, MAN, and WAN networks, which are used to compose the time series evaluated by the selected forecasting models. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section II presents the theoretical and practical aspects of our proposal method. Section III shows the numerical results obtained applying our approach to the selected traffic samples. Finally, Section IV presents our conclusion and final remarks. II. PROPOSED METHOD As discussed in Section I, we assume that forecasts and their quality control are performed continuously following the online approach. Several statistical techniques commonly used to analyze prediction data are not adequate to be applied under this assumption, which are more appropriate to work on offline analyses. Based on this constraint, we choose techniques that are able to generate acceptable degree of accuracy and are feasible to be implemented in an online

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processing scenario. Most of them are not so sophisticate than that applied in offline analysis, however our focus in this work is to demonstrate the practical applicability of the proposed forecast quality control approach rather than investigate an optimal solution. Hence, our aim is to show how forecasting and their quality control can be implemented in an online manner. Improvements on this proposal are in progress and will be communicated in our future works. A. Forecasting model selection Firstly, we choose a set of forecasting models to be evaluated against the traffic samples collected online. The excellent performance of simpler classic forecast models in comparison with much more complex ones - in many fields of knowledge - are well described in the literature [9], [10]. Following these evidences, we adopt classic forecasting models in this work. We evaluated the following models: Naïve, Fitted Naïve, Linear regression, Autoregressive (AR - several orders), Moving average (MA - several orders), Exponential weighted moving average (EWMA - 0.1 ≤ α ≤ 0.9), HoltWinters (HW), and Autoregressive moving average (ARMA). Particularly, for the linear regression models we used two techniques to calculate the estimator for their slope parameter. The least square method (LSE), which is very sensitive to gross errors or outliers, and the Sen’s slope nonparametric test that is not greatly affected by missing data, gross errors, or outliers. These are classic forecasting models and a detailed description of them is beyond the scope of this paper. A comprehensive descriptions of these models may be found in [9], [10], [11], [12], and [13]. The criterion we used to select the best-fit model is the accuracy of their predictions against the observed data. We calculate the models’ accuracy based on the MAPE (mean absolute percentage error) measure [9], which is described in (1).

MAPE =

ˆ 1 n Yt − Yt ∑ n t =1 Yt

(1)

where, n is the sample size, t is an index denoting time period, Y is the observation, Yˆ is the estimated value. This measure has the advantage of being dimensionless, which is an important property because we use not only the original observations but also a transformed data set, as we will describe in Section III. Based on the calculated MAPE for each model, we build a classification rank with the bestfit models on the top. Complementarily, we also may use residual analysis to verify the models’ goodness of fit. Once we have the best-fitted model (first in the rank) selected, we start using it to make predictions.

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As can be seen in (1), MAPE is calculated based on a time series (historic baseline), being computationally costly to update the rank for every new traffic sample collected online, that is, O(n x m) where n is the sample size and m the number of models in the rank, respectively. Hence, we only compute the models’ goodness-of-fit to build a new classification rank when the current selected model is not showing acceptable forecasting quality. It means that we need to keep track of its forecasting quality in real time. We develop this approach for practical traffic engineering purposes, thus real-time monitoring of forecasts quality is a major requirement to control online forecasting processes inside network operation centers. B. Forecasting quality control Considering that automatic and non-supervisioned forecasting quality control requires more appropriate techniques [14] than those applied in usual offline analysis, we consider the use of combined CUSUM and Shewhart control charts [15], [16] to keep tracking of forecasts in order to decide the right time for intervening in the process to prevent unacceptable prediction inaccuracies. Forecasting real-world processes requires periodical interventions due to unpredicted changes in the underlying structure of the modeled phenomenon. Avoiding unnecessary interventions or delays when it is mandatory prevents needless costs caused by decision errors based on forecast discrepancies. The CUSUM control charts [16] has the advantage of taking into account the history of the forecast series, being able to detect model failure rapidly when forecast errors are relatively small. On the other hand, Shewhart chart [17] is better than CUSUM at detecting large changes in forecast errors [18]. Therefore, using both techniques either large model errors or repeated small ones should be quickly detected. These two monitoring abilities are very important in forecasting for network flows, given that either WAN/MAN or LAN traffics may present both types of pattern variation. Equations 2 and 3 present two CUSUM statistics we used in this study.

[

]

(2)

[

]

(3)

Ci+ = max 0, yi − (µ0 − K ) + Ci+−1 Ci− = min 0, yi − (µ0 + K ) + Ci−−1

where yi is the prediction error for the ith observation, µ0 is the estimated in-control mean, K is a reference value calculated as shown in (4), and initial values for C+ and Care zero.

K=

δ σ 2

(4)

,

n

where δ is the magnitude of the process mean shift, usually given in numbers of standard deviations (σ), and n is the size

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of the observation samples. The sensitivity factor, K, is directly related to the magnitude of process change we want to detect with CUSUM algorithm. We monitor the CUSUM statistics using a two-sided CUSUM chart with decision intervals, H+/-, whose the rationale for choosing H is based on minimizing the risk of false alarms and keeping the ability to promptly detect shifts of interest. We use the standard tabular values for H due to the calculated value of K [15]. Different approaches to set CUSUM parameters may be found in [15], and [16]. As a result, if CUSUM statistics fall out of the ranges (µ0 + H+) and (µ0 – H-), respectively, then an alarm is issued indicating that the forecasting errors are beyond the acceptable limits, being necessary an intervention. For the Shewhart charts we calculate the upper (UCL) and lower (LCL) bounds as shown in (5), and (6).

UCL = µ0 + φσ

(5)

LCL = µ0 − φσ

(6)

where ϕ is the shift detection factor given in numbers of standard deviation. We use a value of 3σ that is well accepted in the literature [15], [18]. Since we are using this statistical control technique to monitor forecasting errors, we consider the value for the center line (the expected in-control mean) as zero. III. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY In order to test our approach, the first step of this work was to select different network traffic samples to build the time series used in the forecasting. We use samples from LAN, MAN, and WAN network environments. We work with three different types of traffic data. The first, S1, is related to DHCP messages from a large campus network (LAN). This network offers both wired and wireless connection access, and in both cases the allocation of IP addresses is governed by the DHCP protocol. The DHCP traffic can be used to derive very important metrics for traffic engineers. For example, monitoring the flow of DHCP DISCOVER messages can show the network locations with higher access demand (hot spots). We divided S1 in two subsets, S1.1 and S1.2. The first is related to the number of DHCP DISCOVER messages (per hour), which are broadcasted by clients to discover available DHCP servers. The second regards to DHCP OFFER messages (per hour), which are issued by DHCP servers in reply to DISCOVER messages. The second traffic sample, S2, is related to hostile traffic in a metropolitan are network (MAN). This network interconnects a company’s headquarter to its three branch offices around a metropolitan area. This sample comes from a network intrusion detection system located at headquarter. It contains the number of attacks (per day) arriving from the Internet.

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The third traffic sample, S3, was captured from a corporate wide area network (WAN), which interconnects a company’s headquarter to its eleven branch offices. This network infrastructure supports two main corporate applications. The first is the enterprise resource planning system (ERP), and the second a digital transferring system that transmits digital images between branch offices and the headquarter. Digital image processing is part of the company’s core business and it is done in the headquarter site, with customer’s images coming from all company’s branches. For S1, our sampling strategy considered a measurement period of three days (about 72 hours). For S2, we collected traffic data in a 24/7 regime during a period of three months. For S3, the sample size extended to eight weeks, which allowed us to observe the typical traffic of the studied corporate network. It includes the traffic in normal days and seasonal behaviors (e.g., end of month). In a real corporate network, seasonality has important influence on the overall traffic pattern, since during these periods the network faces a differentiated workload in comparison with the traffic in normal days. A part from their importance, sometimes the analysis of these seasonal events is negligenced by simply removing them from the investigated sample. The traffic measurement occurred from Mondays to Fridays between 7am and 11pm. All other periods did not show significant network activity based on a pilot sample collected previously. Next, we removed outliers from the samples whose sources were unexpected downtimes on server systems, measurement instrumentations, and communication links. Based on this post-capture data analysis, the final time series was used for the model fitting. A. Model Fitting Based on the four traffic samples (S1.1, S1.2, S2, and S3) introduced above, we built the time series used to select the forecasting models. We tested all models against the original observed data sets, and also the transformed data sets. The accuracy of forecasting models is often enhanced through the use of data transformation [19]. Appropriate time series transformation usually helps to simplify the model fitting, and forecasts of future values may be improved. Most of statistical techniques used in model fitting and parameter estimation, for forecasting purpose, assume that the variables under study are independent identically-distributed random variables (i.i.d.) sampled from a Normal distribution [19]. However, many times real data do not follow this assumption. A data transformation is a useful technique to achieve Normality for the data set investigated. Obviously, the estimates made using a transformed series must be retransformed back into the original data unit in order to be meaningful for the analyst. For the four traffic samples, the models’ accuracy obtained with the transformed series showed the best results. Although the predictions obtained with the original data from S1.1, S1.2, and S3 were considered acceptable (more than 70% of accuracy), we decide to work with transformed

395

series given that we found more than 90% of accuracy for all tested models. Also, the forecasting results for S2 (nontransformed) original data showed poor accuracy (lesser than 60%). We considered several transformations (e.g., ln(y), 1/y, ey), and verified that the best fit for all models and samples presented for the logaritmized (log10) data sets. Hence, we adopt the log10 transformation as the standard transformation in our proposed approach. Tables I to IV show, respectively, the rankings with the five best-fit models for S1 to S3, using the transformed series. TABLE I.

RANK OF MODEL FITS ( LOGARITIMIZED S1.1 DATA SET) Models ARMA(1,1) AR(1) EWMA(0.2) MA(1) HW

MAPE 2.9314 3.1389 3.1862 3.3622 3.3692

Accuracy (%) 97.0686 96.8611 96.8138 96.6378 96.6308

4

3.5

Observed ARMA(1,1)

3 1

19

10

28

37

46

55

Figure 1. Best fitting for DHCP DISCOVER traffic (S1.1) Observed

4

AR(1)

3.5

3

2.5

TABLE II.

1

RANK OF MODEL FITS ( LOGARITIMIZED S1.2 DATA SET)

10

28

19

37

46

55

Figure 2. Best fitting for DHCP OFFER traffic (S1.2) Models AR(1) ARMA(1,1) EWMA(0.9) MA(1) HW TABLE III.

MAPE 3.8771 3.8927 4.1426 4.5050 5.9841

Accuracy (%) 96.1229 96.1073 95.8574 95.4950 94.0159

RANK OF MODEL FITS ( LOGARITIMIZED S2 DATA SET)

3.5

2.5

1.5 Observed

Models ARMA(1,1) AR(1) EWMA(0.2) MA(1) HW

MAPE 2.9314 3.1389 3.1862 3.3622 3.3692

Accuracy (%) 97.0686 96.8611 96.8138 96.6378 96.6308

ARMA(1,1)

0.5 1

10

19

28

37

46

55

64

73

82

91

Figure 3. Best fitting for hostile traffic (S2) 9 8.8

TABLE IV.

RANK OF MODEL FITS ( LOGARITIMIZED S3 DATA SET) 8.6

Models HW EWMA(0.1) EWMA(0.6) MA(1) ARMA(1)

MAPE 0.7205 0.7476 0.7522 0.7652 0.7656

Accuracy (%) 99.2795 99.2524 99.2478 99.2348 99.2344

8.4 8.2

Observed HW

8 1

10

19

28

Figure 4. Best fitting for enterprise applications traffic (S3)

As can be observed in all rank tables, the best-fit models were predominantly AR, MA, ARMA, HW, and EWMA. They kept consistent accuracy for all different types of traffic under study. ARMA and AR showed the best fit for S1.1, S1.2, and S2. Due to the nonstationarity of the S3’s traffic pattern, presenting trend and seasonal structures, the HW model performed better. The structure of HW [4], [9] includes components to model both trend and seasonality, giving it more flexibility than other evaluated models. EWMA shows the best consistency among all evaluated models, being within the three best-fit models in all evaluated data sets. Figures 1 to 4 show the best models fitted to the selected traffic samples.

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In addition to the accuracy measure (MAPE), we tested the goodness of fit of the considered models (AR, ARMA, EWMA, HW) also through a residual analysis [9], where none of the residual autocorrelation coefficients appear to be significantly larger than zero. As an example, in Figure 5 we show the result for the HW model fitted to S3. The dashed lines express the upper and lower limits of the calculated 95% confidence interval. The other models showed similar pattern.

396

3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 0

5

10

15

20

25

-0.50 -1.00 -1.50

1.00 0.50 0.00 0

5

10

15

20

25

-0.50 -1.00 -1.50

observed error

C+

C-

Figure 6. Quality control of forecasts for DHCP DISCOVER traffic

1.00 0.50 0.00 0

5

10

15

20

25

-0.50 -1.00 -1.50 observed error

C+

C-

Figure 7. Quality control of forecasts for DHCP OFFER traffic

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C+

C-

Figure 8. Quality control of forecasts for hostile traffic

Figure 5. Autocorrelation function for the residuals using Holt-Winters’ method

B. Forecasting Quality Control As we describe in Section II, in order to employ forecasting as part of network planning and operating management processes, traffic engineers should be able to automatically monitor forecasts’ quality. To achieve this goal, we use a combination of CUSUM and Shewhart charts. The results of applying the proposed method to the four selected traffic samples are presented in Figures 6 to 9. They show the statistical control charts used to monitor the quality of forecasting for each traffic sample investigated. Using four different traffic patterns, we evaluate this approach in terms of its performance under different network environments.

observed error

0.45 0.35 0.25 0.15 0.05 -0.05

0

5

10

15

20

25

-0.15 -0.25 -0.35 -0.45 observed error

C+

C-

Figure 9. Quality control of forecasts for enterprise applications traffic

The outer and inner limits are related to CUSUM and Shewhart control charts, respectively. Along with the CUSUM statistics (C+ and C-) we plot the observed forecasting errors. In Figure 6, the forecasting process remains in control until the eighteenth prediction, where the C- statistic falls outside the CUSUM’s bounds. At this point, a new rank must be calculated in order to identify possible better models. It is important to highlight that, the underlying sources of network traffic flows change, what very often impacts on the current model’s predictions, requiring the selection of a new forecasting model to be used. Figure 7 presents a similar behavior than Figure 6, where the Cstatistic fires a new rank calculation. On the other hand, the forecasting process illustrated in Figure 8 has its rank reevaluated earlier. This hostile traffic data set showed the larger variability among all evaluated traffic samples. In case of Figure 9, two data points (10 and 15), both in C+, are outside of the warning limits (Shewhart’s bounds). This chart shows that, although the forecast errors are larger in the beginning of the process, it situates within the control limits, meaning that the forecasting process is considered adequate for the first twenty-fifth predictions. IV. CONCLUSION AND FINAL REMARKS The excellent performance of simpler forecast models applied to network traffic data has motivated their adoption in several applications for traffic engineering. However, to the best of our knowledge, quality control of network traffic forecasting processes has not been discussed previously. We showed that the combined CUSUM and Shewhart control charts present adequate for the different types of network traffic evaluated. We use the combined CUSUM

397

and Shewhart chart not only because of its flexibility to detect large and small signal deviations (in this case forecast errors) but also due to its feasibility to be implemented as a continuous running application. Using this approach, the computational costs of deploying an online forecasting model is reduced, since the models’ rank is only recomputed when CUSUM statistics are out of control limits, and the control charts updating mechanisms require simple computations. All techniques discussed in this paper are being used to build an online traffic forecast engine, which will be used in a real network operating center application. Differently of the traffic patterns discussed in this paper, the engine under development will be used primarily in traffic engineering for aggregated IP traffic in a large campus network (LAN). Preliminary measurements in this network have shown traffic patterns less stables than those presented in this paper, and a volume of data orders of magnitude larger. In our preliminary tests, the proposed quality control approach has shown very promising results for the target LAN production environment.

[11] J. Fox, “Applied Regression Analysis, Linear Models, and Related Methods”, SAGE Publications, USA, 2007. [12] P. K. Sen, “Estimates of the regression coefficient based on Kendall’s Tau”, Journal of the American Statistical Association, vol. 63, No. 324 (Dec., 1968), pp. 1379-1389. [13] G. S. Makridakis, S. C. Wheelwright, and R. J. Hyndman, “Forecasting: Methods and Applications”, 3rd ed., Wiley, USA, 1997. [14] E. S. Gardner, Jr. , “Automatic Monitoring of Forecast Errors”, Journal of Forecasting, v. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-21, 1983. [15] D. C. Montgomery, “Introduction to Statistical Quality Control,” John Wiley & Sons, 1996. [16] B. Mesnil, and P. Petitgas, “Detection of changes in time-series of indicators using CUSUM control charts,” Journal of Aquatic Living Resources, vol. 22, pp. 187–192, 2009 [17] J. M. Lucas, “ Combined Shewhart CUSUM Quality Control Schemes”, Journal of Quality Technology, v. 14, no. 2, pp. 51-59, 1982. [18] R. W. Samohyl, G.P. Souza, “Monitoring Forecast Errors with Combined CUSUM and Shewhart Control Charts,” 28th International Symposium on Forecasting, 2008. [19] G. E. P. Box, G. M. Jenkins, and G. C. Reinsel. “Time series analysis: forecasting and control,” Prentice hall: New Jersey. 1994.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, and suggestions. This work was supported in part by FAPEMIG. REFERENCES [1]

D. Awduche, A. Chiu, A. Elwalid, I. Widjaja, and X. Xiao, “RFC 3272: Overview and Principles of Internet Traffic Engineering,” IETF, 2002. Available: http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3272.txt [2] C. You, and K. Chandra, “Time series models for Internet data traffic”, In. Proc. of Conference on Local Computer and Networks”, 1999. [3] N. Brownlee, and K. Claffy, “Understanding Internet traffic streams: Dragonflies and tortoises,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 40(10), pp. 110-117, 2002. [4] B. Krishnamurthy, S. Sen, Y. Zhang, and Y. Chen, “Sketch-based change detection: methods, evaluation, and applications,” In Proc. of the 3rd ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Internet Measurement, USA, 2003. [5] H. Yin, C. Lin, B. Sebastien, B. Li, and G. Min, “ Network traffic prediction base on a new time series model”, Int. Joural Comm. System, vol. 18, pp. 711 – 729, 2005. [6] B. Zou, D. He, Z. Sun, and W. Hock Ng, “Network traffic modeling and prediction with ARIMA/GARCH”, In Proc. of Third International Working Conference: performance modelling and evaluation of heterogeneous networks, 2005. [7] B. Krithikaivasan, Y. Zeng, K. Deka, and D. Medhi, “ARCH-based traffic forecasting and dynamic bandwidth provisioning for periodically measured nonstationary traffic” , IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, v. 15(3), pp. 683 –696, 2007 [8] M. Papadopouli, E. Raftopoulos, and H. Shen, “Evaluation of shortterm traffic forecasting algorithms in wireless networks,” IEEE Conference on Next Generation Internet Design and Engineering, Spain, 2006. [9] J. Hanke, A. Reitsch, and D. Wichern, “Business Forecasting”, Prentice Hall, 2001. [10] P. Brockwell, and R. Davis, “Introduction to Time Series and Forecasting”, Springer, 1996.

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Quality Monitoring of Network Traffic Forecasts using ...

Abstract— The literature of network traffic analysis has investigated different forecasting methods applied to traffic engineering in computer and communication networks. Several sophisticated models have been proposed, evaluated and compared, showing very good results in many empirical or controlled studies.

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