This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

Optimal Transmission Range for Minimum Energy Consumption in Wireless Sensor Networks Ruifeng Zhang

Jean-Marie Gorce

CITI / INSA-Lyon ARES / INRIA Rhone-Alpes 69621, Villeurbanne, France Email: [email protected]

CITI / INSA-Lyon ARES / INRIA Rhone-Alpes 69621, Villeurbanne, France Email: [email protected]

Abstract—Energy efficiency is a hot topic in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) because of the limited power supply. Routing strategies have a major impact on total energy consumption of network. Long-hop routing strategies demand substantial transmission power but are capable of reducing energy consumed by relay nodes. Short-hop routing strategies are just the reverse. This paper explores how multi-hop routing strategies are more energy efficient for periodic monitoring applications. We propose an energy efficiency metric for periodic monitoring applications, referred to as the Energy Distance Ratio per bit (EDRb). The concept of unreliable links is integrated into the proposed energy model to take transmission errors into account. By minimizing EDRb, an optimal hop distance is obtained for which related parameters such as optimal transmission power, optimal signal noise ratio (SNR) and optimal bit error rate (BER) are found in Rayleigh fading environment. On the basis of the obtained optimal hop distance, the low bound of mean EDRb for multihop path is computed. Finally, theoretical results are compared to simulations. It is shown that the network’s lifetime can be extended significantly by optimizing the hop length in a classical routing scheme.

I. I NTRODUCTION For multi-hop wireless networks such as Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and ad-hoc networks, energy efficiency is of paramount importance in most of situations because of the limited power supply [1]. Routing strategies in multi-hop have a major impact on energy consumption of each node. Long-hop routing strategies demand substantial transmission power but in turn minimize the energy required by relay nodes. Short-hop routing strategies are just the reverse because of the increase of hops. Many works assessed the optimal distance from physical to routing layers. M. Haenggi points out several advantages of using long-hop routing in [2], [3], among which high energy efficiency is one of most important factors. These works state that although the transmitted energy drops significantly with distance, the reduction of radiated power does not lead to decreasing the total energy consumption. These works reveal the importance of hop distance to energy saving, but did not give the theoretical analysis on the optimal hop distance in various scenarios. In [4], P. Chen et al. present the definition of the optimal one-hop distance for multi-hop communications to minimize the total system energy and analyze the influence of channel parameters on the optimal distance. The same issue

is studied in [5] using a Bit-Meter-per-Joule metric and the authors show the effects of network topology, node density and transceiver characteristics on the overall energy expenditure. J. Deng et al. improve this work in [6]. In [7], the energy efficiency of Single-Input Single-Output (SISO) systems and cooperative Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) systems are studied for different transmission distances. However, a switched link model is used in all the aforementioned works. The switched link model is based on the assumption that the transmission between two nodes x and x succeeds if and only if the signal to noise ratio (SNR) γ¯ (x, x ) at the receiver is above a minimal value γ¯min , which means that only perfect reliable links are used for communication while all unreliable links are neglected. In fact, unreliable links were proved to be very efficient to improve the connectivity of WSNs [8], [9]. In [10], unreliable links were taken into account in the energy model by introducing link probability, and the effect of link error rate on energy efficient was studied. The authors found the minimum energy path for a given source-destination nodes pair and proposed the corresponding routing algorithm. However, the energy model included only the energy consumption which depends on the transmission distance. In fact, the constant part of energy consumption that is independent on the transmission distance plays an importance role on the total energy cost. In addition, how the fading impacts the optimal transmission range and the total energy consumption is not studied in these works. This paper explores how multi-hop routing is more energy efficient for periodic monitoring applications. The problem is formulated as optimizing the energy consumption per correctly received bit. In the literature, the energy efficiency has a different meaning with respect to the targeted application [11]. For periodic monitoring applications, energy per correctly received bit is a crucial metric of energy consumption. The increase of energy cost with transmission distance in wireless communications led us to adopt the metric Energy Distance Ratio per bit (EDRb) firstly proposed in [5] and expressed in J/m/bit. Meanwhile, realistic unreliable link model [8] is integrated into the energy model. For one-hop transmission, the optimal transmission power, the optimal transmission distance are analyzed and a characteristic distance is defined. For multihop transmissions, the low bound of minimum mean energy

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This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

consumption is found, and the optimum number of hops is computed. In the framework of energy minimization in multi-hop networks, the contributions of this paper are the following: • Unreliable links are introduced for studying the energy efficiency. • An optimal transmission power is found which is an inherent property of a node in multi-hop wireless networks, in other words, it is not dependent on network parameters. • The effect of fading on the optimal transmission range is assessed. This paper is organized as follows: In section II, energy models, realistic link model and the metric EDRb are introduced. The optimal transmission distance, as well as the optimal transmission power and the optimal signal to noise ratio (SNR) for one hop transmission are analyzed in section III. In section IV, the characteristic transmission distance is defined and the optimal hop number and the low bound of mean EDRb are deduced. In section V, simulations are shown and analyzed. A short conclusion is drawn in section VI. II. M ODELS AND M ETRIC In this section, we introduce the energy model, the realistic link model and the metric EDRb used in this work. A. Energy model The energy consumption1 for transmitting one packet one time Ep is made of two parts: the energy consumed at the transmitter ET x and at the receiver ERx , i.e., Ep = ET x + ERx .

(1)

The energy model herein proposed is issued from [11]. The transmission energy can be modeled as: Nb · (PtxElec + Pamp ), (2) R where Nb is the number of bits per frame, R is the bit rate of transmission, Tstart and Pstart are startup time and power. The amplifying power cost Pamp relies on the transmission power Pt . The simplistic power model of the amplifier is ET x = Tstart · Pstart +

Pamp = αamp + βamp · Pt ,

(3)

where αamp is a certain constant power level and βamp is a proportional offset. For the receiver, the energy model is Nb · PrxElec , (4) ERx = Tstart · Pstart + R where PrxElec is the circuity power of receiver. For each bit, the energy model can be summarized as: Eb =

Ep = Ec + K 1 · P t , Nb

transmission distance. Substituting (1), (2), (3), (4) into (5) yields: 2Tstart · Pstart PtxElec + PrxElec + αamp (6) + Ec = Nb R βamp . (7) K1 = R For a given technology, Ec and K1 are constant because all parameters in (6) and (7) are fixed. Then Eb becomes a function of Pt , i.e. Eb (Pt ). B. Realistic unreliable link model In this paper, the unreliable radio link model [8] refers to the successful transmission probability: pl (γ(x, x )) = (1 − BER(γ(x, x )))

γ(x, x ) = K2 · Pt · d(x, x )−α

(8)

(9)

with GT ant · GRant · λ2 , (10) (4π)2 N0 · R · L where d(x, x ) is the transmission distance between node x and x , α ≥ 2 is path loss exponent, Pt is transmission power, GT ant and GRant are antenna gains of transmitter and receiver respectively, λ is the wavelength and L ≥ 1 summarizes losses through transmitter / receiver circuitry. For a given scenario K2 is a constant and pl (γ(x, x )) can be rewritten as a function of d and Pt , i.e., pl (d, Pt ). K2 =

C. Mean energy distance ratio per bit (EDRb) From the transmission point of view, high energy efficiency means transmitting as far as possible using the least energy. Hence, we adopt a metric of energy efficiency [5]: Energy Distance Ratio per bit (EDRb) in J/bit/m which is defined as the energy required for transmitting one bit over one meter. The mean energy consumption per bit for one-hop successful transmission E 1hop including retransmission2 can be worked out by: ∞  E 1hop = Eb (Pt ) · n · pl (d, Pt ) · (1 − pl (d, Pt ))(n−1) n=1

1 , pl (d, Pt ) where n is the number of retransmissions needed for a successful transmission. According to the definition of EDRb, the mean EDRb is given by: = Eb (Pt ) ·

EDRb =

1 Coding is not considered, so far the energy cost for coding/decoding is set to zero.

,

where BER(γ) is the bit error rate (BER) relying to the signal to noise ratio (SNR) γ. The BER depends on modulation, coding, and more generally on transmitting and receiving techniques (diversity, equalization, ...). It should also rely on the channel impulse response. γ(x, x ) [11] is assumed to be:

(5)

where Eb is the energy consumption per bit, Ec being the constant part and K1 · Pt being the part which depends on the

Nb

Eb (Pt ) Ec + K1 · Pt E 1hop = = . d d · pl (d, Pt ) d · pl (d, Pt )

(11)

2 A simple retransmission mechanism is used in this work: the transmitter retransmits a packet until receiving an ACK from the receiver. ACK transmission failures and energy consumption are neglected because the size of ACK packets is assumed much smaller than the size of data packets.

758

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TABLE I S OME PARAMETERS FOR THE TRANSCEIVER ENERGY CONSUMPTION ISSUED FROM [11]

III. O NE - HOP O PTIMAL T RANSMISSION One-hop transmission refers obviously to one step in a multi-hop transmission. In this section, the optimal transmission distance and the optimal transmission power for one hop transmission are derived to achieve a minimal energy consumption. Let us analyzing EDRb from its expression (11). For a given WSN, Ec , K1 and K2 are constants as stated above. Concerning Ec , the higher d,n the lower EDRb. On the opposite, concerning K1 · Pt , the lower d the lower EDRb because Pt ∝ dα . Therefore, an optimal distance d0 can be found as a trade-off between both constraints. The optimal transmission distance d0 and the optimal transmission power P0 can be calculated by:    Eb (Pt ) ∂EDRb ∂  = =0 (12)  ∂Pt ∂Pt d · pl (d, Pt )  Pt =P0    ∂ Eb (Pt ) ∂EDRb  = = 0. (13)  ∂d ∂d d · pl (d, Pt ) 

Symbol PrxElec Pstart Tstart PtxElec R αamp βamp N0 fc GT ant GRant Nb α L

Parameter

A. Optimal transmission power

α=2 α=3 α=4

Substituting (8) into (12) and (13), leads to:

EDRb dBmJ/bit/m −64.35 −52.79 −47.21

d0 m 3544 181 44

P0 mW 122.9883 61.4942 40.9961

γ0 8.9717 9.5016 10.0215

1) AWGN channel: A closed-form of the BER is found in [13] for coherent detection in AWGN channels:  (17) BER(γ) = 0.5 · erf c( k · γ),

where BER refers to the derivative of BER. Solving the previous equations, one obtains: Ec . P0 = K1 (α − 1)

Value 279 mW 58.7 mW 446 µs 151 mW 1 M ps 174 mW 5.0 −154dBm/Hz 2.4GHz 1 1 5000 3 1

TABLE II T HE NUMERICAL RESULTS OVER AWGN CHANNEL

d=d0

dα K1 [1 − BER(d−α K2 Pt )] +K2 Nb (Ec + K1 Pt )αBER (d−α K2 Pt ) = 0 dα [1 − BER(d−α K2 Pt )] +K2 Nb Pt αBER (d−α K2 Pt ) = 0,

Description Reception Power Startup Power Startup time Transmit Power Transmission rate Equation(3) Equation(3) Noise level carry frequency Tx antenna gain Rx antenna gain Number of bit Path-loss exponent

(14)

Substituting (6) and (7) into (14) yields   2Tstart · Pstart 1 PtxElec + Prx + αamp P0 = + Nb α−1 βamp R βamp (15) PtxElec + Prx + αamp , (16) ≈ (α − 1)βamp where Nb /R is the transmission duration. In (15), it should be noted that P0 does not depend on the modulation and the fading state. It is reasonable to assume Nb /R  Tstart which means that the impact of startup energy on P0 is negligible and can be ignored. On the opposite, the amplifier characteristics have an important impact on P0 . The higher the amplifier efficiency, i.e. βamp → 1, the higher the optimal transmission power P0 . This results in a further optimal transmission distance d0 and this is consistent with the result of [12]. B. Optimal transmission range In the following and for the sake of simplicity, we take a Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation as an example for studying the properties of d0 in Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) and Rayleigh channels.

∞ 2 with erf c(x) = √2π · √x e−u du, the complementary error function. k relies on the modulation kind and order, e.g. k = 1 for BPSK. The frame-based success probability is given in (8). Although a close-form expression of d0 can not be obtained, we found a numerical solution for a given scenario according to (14) and (11). Table II provides these numerical results for different attenuation coefficients (α). The other parameters are listed in table I. In table II, it should be noticed that the optimal SNR γ0 does not change a lot with respect to α. This is an important feature because this means that a node can know roughly by itself if it is located near the optimal transmission distance by measuring its SNR. On the opposite, the optimal power decreases significantly when α increases. 2) Rayleigh fading channel: In [14], an asymptotic expression of the BER in Rayleigh fading channels is proposed for SN R ≥ 5: αm , (18) γ) ≈ BERf (¯ 2βm γ¯ where αm and βm depend on the type of modulation. For BPSK, αm = 1 and βm = 2. Substituting (18) and (9) into (11) leads to:

759

EDRd(d, Pt ) =



Ec + K1 · Pt

d 1−

αm 2βm K2 ·Pt ·d−α

Nb .

(19)

This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

Substituting (19) and (14) into (12) provides: d0 =

2βm Ec · K2 (α − 1) · K1 αm (αNb + 1)

 α1

Rayleigh fading channel

.

−40.6

(20)

EDRb (dBmJ/bit/m)



mean Energy Distance Ratio per bit −40.55

From (20), it can be deduced that d0 decreases with the increase of either α or Nb . Substituting (14) and (20) into (9) yields the optimal signal to noise ratio γ0 γ0 = (αNb + 1)

αm αNb · αm ≈ (αNb  1). 2βm 2βm

(21)

−40.85

d0f

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

(22) Fig. 1. EDRb of one-hop varies with transmission distance d in Rayleigh fading channels. The optimal parameters are: P0 = 61.4942mW , d0f = 15.9731m, γ0 = 35.7406dB, BER0 = 6.6662e − 005, pl = 0.7165, and were computed respectively by (15) (20) (21) (22) (8) Ef f ect of N b and α on optimal distance

4

10

α = 2.5 α=3 α=4

Optimal distance d0

da (1 + Nb )αm P0 (d) = 4K2 βm  dα K1 αm (dα K1 (1 + Nb )2 αm + 8Ec K2 Nb βm ) + . (23) 4K2 K1 βm Therefore, the transmission power can be adjusted for each transmission distance, according to P0 (d) in an adaptive power system. Finally, EDRb as a function of d is computed by substituting (23) into (11):

αm 2βm K2 ·P0 (d)·d−α

−40.8

distance (m)

From a cross-layer point of view, the MAC and the routing layers can evaluate if a node is at the optimal communication distance by checking the actual SNR or BER with respect to γ0 or BER0 . From (19) and (12), P0 as a function of d is derived as:

d 1−

−40.75

−40.95 11

1 . BER0 = αN b + 1

EDRb(d) =

−40.7

−40.9

Then, substituting (21) into (18) provides:

Ec + K1 P0 (d)

−40.65

3

10

2

10

1

10

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

N umber of bit in a package Nb

Nb .

(24) Fig. 2.

In a situation where Pt is fixed, the optimal transmission distance can be found as: 1/α  K2 · P t . (25) d0 (Pt ) = 1 + Nb · α An example of d0 is shown in Fig.1. The transmission parameters used in this example are listed in table I. This figure underlines how EDRb varies with d according to (24) in a Rayleigh fading channel. The optimal link probability thus obtained pl = 0.7165 shows that the optimal hop length corresponds to an unreliable link. This result is consistent with our previous result [8] stating that the use of reliable links only in fading channels is not efficient. For a small distance (d << d0 ), EDRb monotonously decreases because the main part of energy is a constant and corresponds to circuitry Ec . For a long distance (d >> d0 ), EDRb monotonously increases because the main part of energy refers to the radiation power K1 · Pt . Fig. 2 shows the effect of Nb and α on d0 according to (20): d0 monotonously decreases with the increase of either parameter.

Effects of Nb and α on d0

IV. L OW B OUND OF EDRb IN L INEAR N ETWORKS In this section, we first give the proof that the multi-hop transmission along a line is optimal if the relays are equidistant. The transmission characteristic distance is introduced. Next, the optimal number of hops for linear networks is derived for a given distance based on the optimal transmission distance and the characteristic transmission distance. A. Optimal multi-hop strategy Theorem 1: In a homogeneous linear network, a source node x sends a packet of Nb bits to a destination node x through n hops. The distance between x and x is d. The pathloss exponent α ≥ 2. The successive hop lengths are referred to as d1 , d2 , . . . , dn respectively and the corresponding EDRb are EDRb(di ), i = 1, 2, . . . , n. The minimum mean total energy consumption Etotmin is given by: Nb · d · EDRb(d/n) if and only if d1 = d2 = . . . = dn .

760

(26)

This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

mean Energy Distance Ratio per bit

Proof: Each hop mean energy consumption is noted E m = Nb · EDRb(dm ) · dm , m = 1, 2, . . . , n. Because each hop is independent to each other, the mean total energy consumption is given by

−35

One hop Two hops

EDRb (dBmJ/bit/m)

−36

Etot = E 1 + E 2 + . . . + E n . The problem can be formulated as minimizing Etot under the constraint that d1 + d2 + . . . + dn = d. So far, we set: F = E 1 + E 2 + . . . + E n + λ(d1 + d2 + . . . + dn − d),

−37

−38

−39

dc

−40

d0

where λ = 0 is Lagrange multiplier. According to the method of Lagrange multipliers, one obtains:  ∂E1    +λ=0   ∂d1     ∂E2     ∂d + λ = 0 2 (27) . . .       ∂En   +λ=0   ∂dn    d1 + d2 + . . . + dn = d.

−41

10

20

30

40

50

60

distance (m)

Fig. 3.

Characteristic Transmission Distance mean Energy Distance Ratio per bit

−40.3

EDRb (dBmJ/bit/m)

−40.4

∂E2 ∂En 1 Eq. (27) shows that ∂E ∂d1 = ∂d2 = . . . = ∂dn = −λ is needed to reach the minimum value of F . Because in a homogeneous network, the properties of all nodes are identical,  ∂E  ∂Em = ∂dm ∂d d=dm

−40.5

−40.6

One hop

−40.7

Two hops

−40.8

Three hops

Four hops

Five hops

−40.9

−41 10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Six hops

90

100

distance (m)

Fig. 4.

Theoretical result of low bound of EDRb

∂E ∂d

where m = 1, 2, . . . , n. Because is a monotonic increasing function with d when the path-loss exponent α ≥ 2, the unique solution of (27) is d1 = d2 = . . . = dn = nd , which leads to the final result: Etotmin = Nb · EDRb(d/n) · d.

B. Characteristic distance The characteristic transmission distance dc refers to the distance at which the total energy consumption of a two hops transmission is equal to those of a one hop transmission [15], i.e. EDRb 1hop(dc ) = EDRb 2hop(dc ), as shown in Fig 3. dc is very useful for routing layer to determine the best routing relying strategy: when the transmission distance is greater than dc a relay should be used, otherwise a direct transmission should be preferred. C. Optimum number of hops and low bound of EDRb The optimal hop number can be decided upon the comparison between the actual distance d and the optimal one d0 . When d/d0 is an integer, it is obvious that Nhop0 = d/d0 is just the optimal hop number because each hop length is d0 and thus each hop verifies the minimum EDRb according to theorem 1. when d/d0 is not an integer, the optimal hop

number Nhop0 = n or n + 1 (having n = f loor(d/d0 ) can be decided by:   M in EDRbn (d), EDRbn+1 (d) , (28) where f loor(x) is the largest integer below x and EDRbn (d) = EDRb(d/n). The transmission distance of each hop is d/Nhop0 . Eq. (28) is basically the lower bound of EDRb. For example, Fig. 4 shows the theoretical results of low bound of EDRb. The parameters used are still those listed in table I. V. S IMULATIONS A. Setup of simulation In the simulations, EDRb is evaluated in a squared area A having a surface SA = 200 × 200m2 , on which the nodes are Poisson distributed (29) according to: (ρ · SA )n −ρ·SA e , (29) n! where ρ is the node density. In the following example, ρ = 0.1/m2 . The network is assumed to be geographical-aware, i.e. each node knows its own position and also those of its neighbors. Simultaneously, each node is assumed having the capability

761

P (n nodes in SA ) =

This full text paper was peer reviewed at the direction of IEEE Communications Society subject matter experts for publication in the WCNC 2008 proceedings.

Fig. 5.

Low bound of EDRb as a function of transmission distance

of adjusting its transmission power. In the simulations, each node adjusts its transmission power according to (23) once the transmission distance is chosen by the routing layer. A very simple routing strategy is adopted in our simulations to check the validity of the lower bound of EDRb. Transmitting nodes run the following algorithm: • First step: evaluate if the distance between itself and the destination node is greater than dc ; if YES, transmit the packet to the destination, directly; if NOT, go to second step. • Second step: choose the nodes at a distance from itself in the scope d/Nhop0 ± (dc − d0 ); if no node is found, extend the scope toward the destination, until a node is found. • Third step: Among the nodes selected in step 2, choose as a relay node, the node which is the nearest to the destination node. Then, the node selected as a relay will run the same algorithm. B. Results and analysis Fig. 5 shows the simulation results of EDRb. These simulation results show that the proposed routing protocol, making a full use of unreliable links, the low bound of EDRb is reached. We also see that although our theoretical derivation is based on a linear network model, these results fit to twodimensional networks when the node density is large enough. We note that the optimal distance d0 is not only helpful for routing layer to find an energy saving relay node but also very useful for the deployment of nodes in WSNs. Finally, it should be emphasized that the use of an appropriate multi-hop policy allows to maintain a constant EDRb whatever the total transmission distance. Indeed, in Fig. 5, variations of EDRb are less than ±0.2dB. VI. C ONCLUSION AND P ERSPECTIVE For periodic monitoring applications of WSNs, EDRb is a good indicator of energy efficiency. We proposed in this paper to integrate links unreliability into the energy model.

This metric revealed the relationship between the energy consumption of a node and the transmission distance which can help routing layer at finding an optimal node to relay a packet. By optimizing EDRb in Rayleigh fading channels, we deduced the close-form expression of the optimal transmission distance. Then, from a cross-layer point of view, we computed the optimal SNR and the optimal BER on the basis of the optimal transmission distance by which routing layer can find an optimal relay node. So far, we can conclude that both too short or too long hops routing are not efficient for the purpose of energy saving in WSNs. Optimizing the hops’ length in routing schemes can extend significantly the lifetime of the network. This result could be also useful for the deployment of networks to adapt the node density as a function of the material characteristics. In future works, we will consider the effect of coding on the optimal transmission range and we will extend the theoretical results to 2-D Poisson networks. The energy model will also have to include the energy consumed by overhearing. R EFERENCES [1] A. Ephremides, “Energy concerns in wireless networks,” Wireless Communications, IEEE [see also IEEE Personal Communications], vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 48–59, 2002. [2] M. Haenggi, “On routing in random rayleigh fading networks,” Wireless Communications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 1553–1562, 2005. [3] M. Haenggi and D. Puccinelli, “Routing in ad hoc networks: a case for long hops,” Communications Magazine, IEEE, vol. 43, no. 10, pp. 93–101, 2005. [4] P. Chen, B. O’Dea, and E. Callaway, “Energy efficient system design with optimum transmission range for wireless ad hoc networks,” in Communications, 2002. ICC 2002. IEEE International Conference on, vol. 2, 2002, pp. 945–952. [5] J. L. Gao, “Analysis of energy consumption for ad hoc wireless sensor networks using a bit-meter-per-joule metric,” Tech. Rep., 2002. [6] J. Deng, Y. S. Han, P. N. Chen, and P. K. Varshney, “Optimal transmission range for wireless ad hoc networks based on energy efficiency,” Communications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 1439–1439, 2007. [7] S. Cui, A. J. Goldsmith, and A. Bahai, “Energy-efficiency of mimo and cooperative mimo techniques in sensor networks,” Selected Areas in Communications, IEEE Journal on, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 1089–1098, 2004. [8] J.-M. Gorce, R. Zhang, and H. Parvery, “Impact of radio link unreliability on the connectivity of wireless sensor networks,” EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking, vol. 2007, 2007. [9] M. Z. Zamalloa and K. Bhaskar, “An analysis of unreliability and asymmetry in low-power wireless links,” ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks, vol. 3, no. 2, p. 7, 2007. [10] S. Banerjee and A. Misra, “Energy efficient reliable communication for multi-hop wireless networks,” Journal of Wireless Networks (WINET), 2004. [11] H. Karl and A. Willig, Protocols and Architectures for Wireless Sensor Networks. John Wiley and Sons, 2005. [12] M. Haenggi, “The impact of power amplifier characteristics on routing in random wireless networks,” in Global Telecommunications Conference, 2003. GLOBECOM ’03. IEEE, vol. 1, 2003, pp. 513–517. [13] Z. Wang and B. G. Giannakis, “A simple and general parameterization quantifying performance in fading channels,” Communications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 51, no. 8, pp. 1389–1398, 2003. [14] A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications. cambridge university press, 2005. [15] R. Min, M. Bhardwaj, N. Ickes, A. Wang, and A. Chandrakasan, “The hardware and the network: Total-system strategies for power aware wireless microsensors,” in Proc. IEEE CAS Workshop on Wireless Communications and Networking, 2002.

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