Blackwell Science, LtdOxford, UKBJUBJU International1464-410XBJU InternationalOctober 2003 926 Original Article NEUROANATOMY OF THE MALE URETHRA and PERINEUM S. YUCEL and L.S. BASKIN

Neuroanatomy of the male urethra and perineum S. YUCEL and L.S. BASKIN Department of Urology and Paediatrics, UCSF Children’s Medical Center, University of California San Francisco, USA Accepted for publication 8 May 2003

OBJECTIVE To describe the topography of the perineal nerves from their pudendal origin to their course into the male genitalia, with specific attention on the course of the perineal nerve along the ventral penis, including branches into bulbospongiosus muscle and corpus spongiosum. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study comprised 18 normal human fetal penile specimens at 17.5–38 weeks of gestation (determined by fetal heel-to-toe length). Specimens were fixed in formalin, embedded in paraffin wax and serially sectioned at 6 mm. The penile specimens contained the whole penis from the glans to the crural bodies, beneath the pubic arch and the perineum up to the anal verge. Immunocytochemistry was assessed on selected sections with antibodies against the neuronal markers S-100 and nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). Three-dimensional computer reconstruction of serial sections

INTRODUCTION We previously described the neuroanatomy of the human fetal penis and clitoris [1,2], during which we documented the detailed topography of the dorsal nerve and cavernosal nerves of the penis [3]. The innervation of the perineal anatomy has been investigated mainly by electrophysiological studies [4–7]. The perineal nerves are critical for both somatic function, e.g. the bulbocavernous reflex, and sensory function to the perineum [6,7]. A common surgical approach to the anterior and posterior urethra is via the perineum. During surgery, preserving neuronal structures decreases long- or short-term complications, e.g. temporary or permanent impotence, ejaculation disorders and sensory deficiencies. Furthermore, the success of regional and local anaesthesia depends on a 624

allowed an in-depth analysis of the neuroanatomy of the fetal penis, perineum and surrounding structures.

RESULTS After the pudendal nerve leaves the pudendal canal it gives rise to the perineal nerve branches in the ischiorectal fossa. Perineal nerves travel alongside the ischiocavernous and bulbospongiosus muscles and before reaching the latter, nerve branches course into the bulbospongiosus muscle. During its pathway within this muscle, fine nerve fibres course into the corpus spongiosum by piercing through the junction of the muscle. At the penoscrotal area, the perineal nerves give branches to the scrotum, funnelling into the interscrotal septum. Perineal nerves continue their pathway over the ventral side of penis covering the ventral surface of corpus spongiosum. Branches of the dorsal nerve of the penis at the junction of corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum assemble into a network with the perineal

through knowledge of the nerve distribution. Herein, we define the pathway of the perineal nerves arising from the pudendal nerves, using immunohistochemical techniques and computer-based three-dimensional (3D) anatomical reconstruction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The investigation was approved by the Committee on Human Research at the University of California, San Francisco. Eighteen normal human male fetal genital specimens ranging from 17.5 to 40 weeks of gestation were studied. Specimens were fixed in formalin, embedded in paraffin wax and serially sectioned at 6 mm. All specimens contained the scrotum, penis, perineum and the anterior anal canal. Specimens of >30 weeks’ gestation were decalcified using the EDTA technique [8]. The gestational age of

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nerves. All perineal nerves from their main trunk at the ischiorectal fossa until their interaction with dorsal nerve of penis at the base of penis were nNOS negative. After the interaction with the dorsal nerve of penis, they become nNOS positive. CONCLUSION Integrating neuroanatomical knowledge about the perineal nerves and their communication with the dorsal nerve of penis should facilitate a strategic approach to reconstructive procedures on the penis. Special care should be taken at the junction between the corpora cavernosa and spongiosa, where the dorsal nerve joins the perineal nerve, and at the proximal bulbospongiosus muscle, thereby protecting the fine nerves piercing into the cavernosa spongiosa. KEYWORDS neuroanatomy, penis, perineum and perineal nerve

each fetus was determined by fetal heel-totoe length [9]. Each 10th section was stained with haematoxylin-eosin and Masson’s trichrome. Selected sections were assessed immunohistochemically using antibodies raised against the neuronal markers S-100 (Dako Corp., Carpintiera, CA) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS; Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, MI). The immunocytochemical techniques used were described previously [3]. Briefly, the avidinbiotin-peroxidase procedure was used (Vectastain ABC kit, Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) with cobalt intensification. All immunocytochemical analysis was controlled with non-immune serum or IgG at equivalent dilutions. Neuroanatomical computer-reconstructed images were created with a digital camera

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NEUROANATOMY OF THE MALE URETHRA AND PERINEUM

(Nikon, Melville, NY), SURFdriver 3.5 software (SURFdriver, University of Hawaii and University of Alberta) and a Power Macintosh G4 (Apple, Sunnyvale, California). Every fifth to 10th section was digitized. The corporal bodies, urethra, skin and neuronal structures were manually outlined and checked against the original histological sections. The directions of perineal nerves and dorsal nerve of the penis in relation to crural bodies, bulbospongiosus muscle, urethra and surrounding structures were analysed in 3D in the x and y axes as an animated motion picture, and views of interest captured as static images [3]

The perineal nerves occupy the entire surface of the ventral penis including the frenular area (Fig. 1i–k). All perineal nerves from their main trunk at the ischiorectal fossa until their interaction with dorsal nerve of the penis at the base of penis were nNOS negative (Fig. 2a,b). After the interaction at the base of the penis all perineal nerves coursing along the ventral penis became nNOS positive (Fig. 2c–g). Branches of the perineal nerves penetrating into the corpus spongiosum remained nNOS negative. Scrotal nerves arising from the perineal nerve were nNOS negative (Fig. 2c,e). DISCUSSION

RESULTS After the pudendal nerve leaves the pudendal canal it gives rise to the perineal nerve branches in the ischiorectal fossa (Fig. 1a,b). Perineal nerves later travel alongside the ischiocavernous and bulbospongiosus muscles (Figs 1c–h and 2a,b). Before travelling on the bulbospongiosus muscle, the perineal nerve directs a branch into the bulbospongiosus muscle. This branch is easily visible between the muscle bodies (Figs 1a,b, 3b, 4 and 5). Another perineal nerve trunk moves adjacent to the bulbospongiosus muscle occupying the lateral sides of the muscle (Figs 1c–h and 3). During its pathway on the bulbospongiosus muscle, fine nerve fibres arising from lateral trunk travel to the junction of the two muscle bellies in the midline and pierce the midline to send branches into the corpus spongiosum. These fibres course towards the bulbar urethra (Figs 1c, 2b, 3c,e,f and 4 and 5). Lateral nerve trunks on the bulbospongiosus muscle and other perineal nerves travelling around the ischiocavernosus muscles course into the corpus spongiosum where the bulbospongiosus muscle ends (Figs 4 and 5). Before terminating in the penoscrotal area, some of the perineal nerve branches give rise to cutaneous branches in the scrotum that funnel into the interscrotal septum (Fig. 1,i–k). The perineal nerves continue their pathway on the ventral side of penis covering almost the total surface of the corpus spongiosum (Figs 2c–g, 4 and 5). Branches of the dorsal nerve of the penis at the lateral margins where corpus spongiosum lies on the corpus cavernosa assemble into a network with the perineal nerves (Figs 2c–g, 4 and 5).

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The somatic innervation of the lower urogenital system arises principally from the spinal nerves S2 to S4 by way of the pudendal nerve [10]. After passing under the sacrospinous ligament and over the sacrotuberous ligament through Alcock’s canal the pudendal nerve passes through the transverse perineal muscle to course on the dorsum of the penis as the dorsal nerve of the penis [11]. The dorsal nerve of the penis is thought to be a sensory nerve and its role in male sexual function has been extensively investigated by anatomical dissections and electrophysiological studies [5,12]. The autonomic innervation of the penis arises from the vesical and prostatic plexus, which is composed of sympathetic nerves from L1 and L2, and parasympathetic nerves from S2 to S4 [13]. The cavernosal nerve leaves the pelvis between the transverse perineal muscles and the membranous urethra before passing beneath the arch of pubis to supply each corporal body.

best available anatomical data. Adult cadaveric studies have been the main source of information about the anatomy of the perineal nerve [6,7,18]. In formalin-preserved adult cadavers, even with microdissection, the fine nerves cannot be identified. Using fetal human tissue and nerve-specific immunohistochemical techniques, we accurately traced even the finest branches of the perineal nerve (Figs 1–3). In the present study we showed that the perineal nerve innervates the bulbospongiosus muscle (Figs 1–5). The bulbospongiosus muscle is a striated muscle surrounding the bulbous urethra, originating from the median raphe on the inferior surface of the bulb of the corpus spongiosum, and inserting on the fascia between the corpus spongiosum and corpus cavernosum (Figs 4 and 5). Rhythmic contractions of the bulbospongiosus muscle and other perineal muscles expel semen from the urethra. The perineal nerve travels obliquely into the bulbospongiosus muscle [6,7,15] (Figs 1 and 3). After distributing fine nerve branches into bulbospongiosus muscle, it courses on the lateral aspect of bulbospongiosus muscle and sends fine branches to penetrate into the corpora spongiosa mainly in the bulbar area, by piercing the junction of two bulbospongiosus muscles in the midline (Figs 1 and 3). To our knowledge, this is the first study showing perineal nerve penetration into the corpora spongiosum.

After the pudendal nerve leaves the pudendal canal, two main terminal branches arise, i.e. the inferior rectal and the perineal nerves. The function of the inferior rectal nerve is motor innervation of external anal sphincter and is thought to be devoid of urogenital function [14]. Sensory portions of the inferior rectal nerve are important for perianal skin sensation. The perineal nerve has both a motor and sensory component. The motor efferents are known to innervate the pelvic musculature, mainly the bulbospongiosus muscle [15]. The contribution of the perineal nerve to urinary continence, ejaculation and possible erection has been described [5,16,17].

Lack of precise perineal neuroanatomy has limited the analysis of the perineal nerves for erectile function. In animal models, perineal nerve stimulation has been reported to result in erections [17]. An increase in corporal pressure after bulbospongiosus muscle contraction is thought to cause the erection [17]. Similarly, in humans it was reported that decreased pelvic floor and bulbospongiosus muscle contractile ability correlates with erectile dysfunction [19]. Based on these findings, pelvic-perineal rehabilitation has been introduced in the treatment of erectile dysfunction in some patients [20]. The contribution of the perineal nerve to the innervation of the corpora spongiosa may be important in erection neurophysiology by some reflex mechanisms that remained unclear.

The extensive electrophysiological studies of the perineal nerve have been based on the

That the perineal nerve becomes nNOSpositive at the junction with dorsal nerve of 625

S. YUCEL and L.S. BASKIN

FIG. 1. Serial transverse sections of a 27-week gestational human fetal penis immunostained with the neuronal marker S-100. The orientation of each section corresponds to the centrally located 3D reconstruction. Pubic bone (pb), bulbospongiosus muscle (bc), ischiocavernosus muscle (ic), corpora cavernosum (cc), corpora spongiosum (cs) urethra (u), scrotum (s), and prostate (pr). a and b: note the origin of the perineal nerves from the pudendal nerves (arrows) close to ischial fossa, medial to the ischiocavernous muscle and pubic bones. The perineal nerve direction (arrowhead) is towards the midline of bulbospongiosus muscle. The motor branch to bulbospongiosus muscle arises from the perineal nerve close to the ischiorectal fossa and courses obliquely towards the muscle. On both sides close to the pubic bones, the dorsal nerve bundle (asterisk) is visible. c, note the location of the main perineal nerves between the ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles (arrow). Some small fibres of perineal nerve (arrowhead) migrate medially to enter into the cleavage between the bulbospongiosus muscles. The junctional midline of the two bellies is the main access for the perineal nerves to approach the corpus spongiosum. The continuation of the dorsal nerve bundle (asterisk) is seen above the corporal bodies (d–g). d and e, the perineal nerves cover the ventral surface of bulbospongiosus (arrows) muscle. At the membranous and bulbar urethral level, the perineal nerves send branches (arrowhead) between the bulbospongiosus muscle bellies. f, small perineal nerves (arrowhead) approach the corpus spongiosum inside the bulbospongiosus muscle. At the cavernosa-spongiosal junction, perineal nerves give branches (long arrows) to the bulbar urethra level leading to frenular area. g and h, corpus spongiosum is supplied by the perineal nerves (long arrows) originating from the junctional midline of bulbospongiosus muscle (arrowhead). Ventral to the bulbospongiosus muscle the perineal nerve continues to course along the muscle (arrows). i, j, k and l; note the course of perineal nerves (arrows) around the ventral penis. At the penoscrotal junction the perineal nerves (arrows) move towards the interscrotal septum to supply the scrotum. The perineal nerves merge with the dorsal nerve of penis at the cavernosa-spongiosal junction (stars and long arrows). This interaction starts at the end of the bulbospongiosus muscle.

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FIG. 2. Transverse sections of the human fetal penis immunostained with the neuronal markers S-100 (left panel) and nNOS (right panel). Pubic bone (pb), bulbospongiosus muscle (bc), ischiocavernosus muscle (ic), corpora cavernosum (cc), corpora spongiosum (cs) and urethra (u). A, proximal section in a 24-week gestational specimen. Note the origin of the perineal nerves from the pudendal nerves (arrows) close to ischial fossa, medial to the ischiocavernosus muscle and pubic bones. The perineal nerve direction (arrowhead) is towards the midline of bulbospongiosus muscle. On the right panel (A), perineal and pudendal nerves are nNOS negative whereas the cavernosal nerves are positive (short arrows). B, proximal section at 24 weeks gestation. Note that the perineal nerves surround the under surface of the bulbospongiosus muscle medial to the ischiocavernosus muscle. On the right panel, perineal nerves (arrows) are nNOS negative under and within (arrowhead) the bulbospongiosus muscle. C, proximal-midshaft at 24 weeks gestation. On the left panel, the dorsal nerve covers the corpora cavernosa extending laterally and the perineal nerves cover the corpus spongiosum ventrally and laterally. On the right panel (C), the dorsal nerves (long arrows) and perineal nerves (short arrows) are seen as nNOS positive. Note the junction of the corpora cavernosa and spongiosa where the dorsal nerves and perineal nerves meet and perineal nerves becomes nNOS positive (asterisk). D, distal penile shaft at 24 weeks gestation. On the left panel (D), the dorsal nerves surround the corpora cavernosa to the corpus spongiosum except at the 12 o’clock position. On the right panel (D), the dorsal nerves (arrows) and perineal nerves are seen as nNOS positive. Note the junction of corpora cavernosa and spongiosa where the dorsal nerves and perineal nerves interact (long arrows). E, midshaft of the penis at 27 weeks gestation. On the left panel (E), arrows show the interaction between the dorsal nerve of penis (long arrows) and perineal nerves (short arrows). The ventral aspect is completely covered by perineal nerves. On the right panel (E), note the interacting fibres between these two nerve systems are nNOS positive (asterisk). F, an oblique section at 20 weeks gestation. Note in the left panel the main perineal nerve trunks (arrowhead) and dorsal nerves (long arrow) over the corporal bodies. On the right panel, proximal perineal nerves (short arrow) are seen as nNOS negative whereas tiny branches around the spongious tissue close to corpora cavernosa are nNOS positive. The dorsal nerves (long arrow) are nNOS positive. G, proximal-midshaft at 28 weeks gestation. Note that the nerves surrounding the spongiosal tissue are nNOS positive (right panel) as are the dorsal nerve branches (long arrows). The perineal nerves (short arrows) on the ventral side and dorsal nerves join at the junction of spongiosal and cavernosal tissue at 4 and 8 o’clock positions (asterisk).

the penis at the lateral margins where the corpora spongiosum lies on corpora cavernosa (Fig. 2) might be explained by a redundant ‘wiring’ system important for maintaining erectile function. The loss of nNOS positivity in the perineal nerve fibres proximal to the junction of the dorsal nerve (Fig. 2) is unlikely to be explained by select

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expression of nNOS in the distal rather than proximal perineal nerve. A more likely explanation is the communication between the nNOS-positive dorsal nerve and the distal perineal nerve (Fig. 2). This phenomena has also been documented for the dorsal nerve at its junction with the cavernosal nerve [21].

The perineal nerves have recently been shown to be responsible for sensory innervation of ventral penis and frenular area [22]. The present study supports this finding, in that the course of the perineal nerves innervating the bulbospongiosus muscle continued on the ventral penis, terminating in the frenular area (Fig. 3). The ventral location of the perineal 627

S. YUCEL and L.S. BASKIN

FIG. 3. Transverse sections of the human fetal penis immunostained with the neuronal marker S-100. Pubic bone (pb), bulbospongiosus muscle (bc), ischiocavernosus muscle (ic), corpora cavernosum (cc), corpora spongiosum (cs) and urethra (u). A, 30 weeks gestation. Note the localization of perineal nerves (arrow) at the level of bulbar urethra between the ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles. Note the dorsal nerve of penis bundles close to the pubic bones. B, 32 weeks gestation. Note the perineal nerve branches (arrowheads) inside the bulbospongiosus muscle bellies. Perineal nerve branches (arrows) are seen mainly between the ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles. Dorsal nerve of the penis bundles (asterisk) are seen at the medial side of both pubic bones. C, 32 weeks gestation. Note the penetration of the perineal nerves (long arrows) into the corpus spongiosum at the bulbar urethra level. Perineal nerves (short arrows) cover the surface of bulbospongiosus muscle and send branches (arrowhead) into the corpus spongiosum (cs) through the midline cleavage between two bellies of bulbospongiosus muscle. D, 36 weeks’ gestation. Note the perineal nerve branches (arrowhead) inside the corpus spongiosum (cs). Perineal nerves (short arrows) surround the corpus spongiosum and send branches (long arrows) to the cavernosa-spongiosal junction at the bulbar urethra level. E, 28 weeks’ gestation. Note the perineal nerve (short arrows) distribution on bulbospongiosus muscle. Perineal nerve branches (long arrows) course through the midline cleavage of two bulbospongiosus muscle bellies to enter into the corpus spongiosum (arrowhead). F, 35 weeks’ gestation. Note the perineal nerve (short arrows) distribution around the bulbospongiosus muscles. Perineal nerve branches (long arrows) travel through the midline cleavage of two bulbospongiosus muscle bellies to enter into the corpus spongiosum (arrowhead). G, 30 weeks’ gestation. Note the perineal nerve distribution on the ventral side of penis. H, 35 weeks’ gestation. Note the perineal nerve (short arrows) distribution on bulbospongiosus muscle. Again, the perineal nerve branches (long arrows) travel through the midline cleavage of two bulbospongiosus muscle bellies to enter into the corpus spongiosum (arrowhead).

nerves also supports the clinical finding of Serour et al. [23], who reported that for optimum regional anaesthesia for circumcision, blockage of the dorsal nerve of penis alone is inadequate. According to the present anatomical findings, perineal nerve blockage at the penoscrotal area between the 5 and 7 o’clock positions would also be necessary for frenular anaesthesia (Figs 1–5). Thus, a circumferential local anaesthesia around the base of penis to block both the 628

dorsal and ventral perineal nerve is necessary for regional anaesthesia for penile procedures. Mundy [24] reported a 50% temporary and 5% permanent impotency rate after anastomotic, and 33% temporary and 1% permanent impotence rate after patch urethroplasty. He concluded that the causes of impotence after urethroplasty should be investigated. Similarly, Coursey et al. [25]

reported that 31% of patients had worsening sexual satisfaction after urethroplasty in a subset of patients with normal sexual function before surgery. Early endoscopic intervention for posterior urethral trauma has been reported to result in better outcomes for sexual function [26]. Based on these studies, we speculate that potential perineal nerve injuries during urethroplasty cause temporary or permanent sexual dysfunction.

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NEUROANATOMY OF THE MALE URETHRA AND PERINEUM

FIG. 4. Computer-generated 3D reconstruction of the normal fetal penis at 27 weeks of gestation. A–H, dark blue represents the pubic arch composed of the upper and lower rami with part of the ischial bone. Pink represents both corporeal bodies. Blue represents the urethral spongiosum. Yellow at the tip of the penis represents the glans. Yellow represents the dorsal nerve and perineal nerves. Green represents the bulbospongiosus muscles. Note the close proximity of the perineal nerves and dorsal nerves at the junction of the corporal bodies and urethral spongiosum especially at the termination of the bulbospongiosus muscle. Perineal nerves send a motor branch into each belly of bulbospongiosus muscle. The perineal nerves continue their course around the bulbospongiosus muscle while sending off piercing branches into the corpora spongiosa through the junctional midline of two bulbospongiosus muscle bellies.

FIG. 5. Computer-generated 3D reconstruction of the normal fetal penis at 27 weeks of gestation without bony structures. Pink represents both corporeal bodies. Blue represents the urethral spongiosum. Yellow at the tip of the penis represents the glans. Yellow represents the dorsal nerve and perineal nerves. Green represents the bulbospongiosus muscles. Note the close proximity of the perineal nerves and dorsal nerves at the junction of the corporal bodies and urethral spongiosum especially at the termination of the bulbospongiosus muscle. The perineal nerves surround the whole surface of urethral spongiosum along the penis.

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Integrating the neuroanatomical knowledge about the perineal nerves and their communication with the dorsal nerve of penis facilitates a strategic approach to reconstructive procedures on the penis. Special care should be taken at the lateral margins where the corpora spongiosa lie on the corpora cavernosa, and where the dorsal nerve joins the perineal nerve, and at the proximal bulbospongiosus muscle, thereby protecting the fine nerves piercing into the cavernosa spongiosa.

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10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Supported by NIH grant R01 DK57246-04.

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Baskin LS, Lee YT, Cunha GR. Neuroanatomical ontogeny of the human fetal penis. Br J Urol 1997; 79: 628–40 Baskin LS. Fetal genital anatomy: reconstructive implications. J Urol 1999; 162: 527–9 Akman Y, Liu W, Li WL, Baskin LS. Penile anatomy under the pubic arch: reconstructive implications. J Urol 2001; 166: 225–30 Lapides J, Bobbitt JM. Diagnostic value of bulbocavernous reflex. JAMA 1956; 162: 971–2 Dick H, Bradley WE, Scott F, Timm G. Pudendal sexual reflexes: electrophysiologic investigations. Urology 1973; 3: 376–9 Yang C, Bradley WE. Reflex innervation of the bulbospongiosus muscle. Br J Urol 2000; 85: 857–63 Yang C, Bradley WE. Somatic

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innervation of the human bulbospongiosus muscle. Clin Neurophysiol 1999; 110: 412–8 Bancroft JD, Stevens A. Bone and the preparation of bone sections. In Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques, Chapt. 16; 2nd edn. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1982: 297–9 Hern WM. Correlation of fetal age and measurements between 10 and 26 weeks of gestation. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 63: 26–32 Lue TF, Zeineh SJ, Schmidt RA, Tanagho EA. Neuroanatomy of penile erection: its relevance to iatrogenic impotence. J Urol 1984; 131: 273 ñ 80 Breza J, Aboseif SR, Orvis BR, Lue TF, Tanagho EA. Detailed anatomy of penile neurovascular structures: surgical significance. J Urol 1989; 141: 437–43 Yang C, Bradley WE. Peripheral distribution of the human dorsal nerve of the penis. J Urol 1998; 159: 1912–6 Paick JS, Donatucci CF, Lue TF. Anatomy of cavernous nerves distal to prostate: microdissection study in adult male cadavers. Urology 1993; 42: 145–9 Henry MM, Snooks SJ, Barnes PR, Swash M. Investigation of disorders of the anorectum and colon. Ann Roy Coll Surg Engl 1985; 67: 355–60 Takahashi M, Sato T. Innervation of the anterior perineal muscles and its morphological consideration. Anat Anz 1985; 158: 65–78 Shafik A. Perineal nerve stimulation for urinary sphincter control. experimental study. Urol Res 1994; 22: 151–5 Shafik A. Perineal nerve stimulation: role in penile erection. Int J Impot Res 1997; 9: 11–6 Uchio EM, Yang CC, Kromm BG, Bradley

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WE. Cortical evoked responses from the perineal nerve. J Urol 1999; 162: 1983–6 Colpi GM, Negri L, Nappi RE, Chinea B. Perineal floor efficiency in sexually potent and impotent men. Int J Impot Res 1999; 11: 153–7 Claes H, van Hove J, van de Voorde W et al. Pelvi-perineal rehabilitation for dysfunctioning erections. A clinical and anatomo-physiologic study. Int J Impot Res 1993; 5: 13–26 Yucel S, Baskin LS. Communicating branches between the dorsal, perineal and cavernosal nerves. J Urol 2003; 170: 153– 8 Yang C, Bradley WE. Innervation of the human glans penis. J Urol 1999; 161: 97– 102 Serour F, Mori J, Barr J. Optimal regional anesthesia for circumcision. Anesth Analg 1994; 79: 129–31 Mundy AR. Results and complications of urethroplasty and its future. Br J Urol 1993; 71: 322–5 Coursey JW, Morey AF, McAninch JW et al. Erectile function after anterior urethroplasty. J Urol 2001; 166: 2273–6 Moudouni SM, Patard JJ, Manunta A, Guiraud P, Lobel B, Guille F. Early endoscopic realignment of posttraumatic posterior urethral disruption. Urology 2001; 57: 628–32

Correspondence: L.S. Baskin, MD, Department of Urology, University of California San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Ave, A640, Box 0738, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA. e-mail: [email protected] Abbreviations: 3D, three-dimensional; nNOS, neuronal nitric oxide synthase.

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Neuroanatomy of the male urethra and perineum - Wiley Online Library

After the pudendal nerve leaves the pudendal canal it gives rise to the perineal nerve branches in the ischiorectal fossa. Perineal nerves travel alongside the ischiocavernous and bulbospongiosus muscles and before reaching the latter, nerve branches course into the bulbospongiosus muscle. During its pathway within this ...

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C. Pichon1,2,3 and S. Colombi2,3. 1Observatoire Astronomique de Strasbourg, 11 Rue de l'Université, 67000 Strasbourg, France. 2Institut d'Astrophysique de ...

Plant energetics and the synthesis of population ... - Wiley Online Library
life-history traits, plant population and community dynamics. Introduction. If the plant ... tion in biogeochemical cycles (De Deyn, Cornelissen &. Bardgett 2008) or ... Beyond specific application to PEMs, the approach I advo- cate in this paper ...

The effects of procedural and informational ... - Wiley Online Library
Nov 20, 2008 - mational justice on post-deal value creation in large, related acquisitions. Our results show ...... http://www.boozallen.com/media/file/76776.pdf.

The Impact and Effectiveness of Transparency ... - Wiley Online Library
It presents case studies of civil-society activism on FOI in India and South Africa to illustrate the extent to which access to information is having an impact, ...

Plant energetics and the synthesis of population ... - Wiley Online Library
cesses, on the other hand, involve the flow of energy and materials between plants, animals and microbes, and are thus closely related to the biomass dynamics ...