Biological Psychology 70 (2005) 182–187 www.elsevier.com/locate/biopsycho

Looking at the heart of low and high heart rate variability fearful flyers: self-reported anxiety when confronting feared stimuli Xavier Bornas a,*, Jordi Llabre´s b, Miquel Noguera c, Ana M Lo´pez d, ` ngel Fullana e Francesca Barcelo´ a, Miquel Tortella-Feliu b, Miquel A b

a Department of Psychology, University of the Balearic Islands, Spain University Research Institute on Health Sciences (IUNICS), Department of Psychology, University of the Balearic Islands, Spain c Department of Applied Mathematics 2, Technical University of Catalonia, Spain d Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Sevilla, Spain e Department of Psychiatry, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain

Received 30 September 2004; accepted 4 January 2005 Available online 2 March 2005

Abstract Previous research has shown that phobic subjects with low heart rate variability (HRV) are less able to inhibit an inappropriate response when confronted with threatening words compared to phobic subjects with high HRV [Johnsen, B.H., Thayer, J.F., Laberg, J.C., Wormnes, B., Raadal, M., Skaret, E., et al., 2003. Attentional and physiological characteristics of patients with dental anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 75–87]. The aim of this study was to evaluate changes in self-reported anxiety when low HRV and high HRV fearful flyers (N = 15) and a matched control group (N = 15) were exposed to flight-related pictures, flight-related sounds or both pictures and sounds. We hypothesized that sounds would be crucial to evoke fear. Also, low HRV fearful flyers were expected to report higher anxiety than high HRV fearful flyers assuming anxiety as their inappropriate response. Decreases on HRV measures were also predicted for a subgroup of phobic participants (N = 10) when confronted with the feared stimuli. Our data supported the hypothesis that sounds are crucial in this kind of phobia. Low HRV fearful flyers reported higher anxiety than high HRV fearful flyers in two out of three aversive conditions. The predicted HRV decreases were not found in this study. Results are discussed in the context of avoidance of exposure-based treatments. # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Flight phobia; Heart rate variability; Exposure; Dynamical systems

Psychophysiological assessment is not common in anxiety disorders treatment studies (Wilhelm and Roth, 2001). It seems to be relatively expensive, time-consuming, and the results are often controversial. For some authors, the information provided by self-report may be sufficient for treatment planning, making psychophysiological assessment superfluous (Foa and Kozak, 1988). In spite of that, to examine the psychophysiological responses of patients to treatment seems to be a worthy research goal in order to get a better understanding of the action mechanisms of the specific treatment components (e.g. stimuli).

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 971 172580; fax: +34 971 173190. E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Bornas). 0301-0511/$ – see front matter # 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.01.002

As a continuation of our research on the computer assisted fear of flying treatment (CAFFT), one of the aims of this study was to evaluate the impact of visual, auditory, or visual plus auditory stimuli on fearful flyers self-reported anxiety as well as on their heart functioning. Anecdotal reports from the participants in our previous studies (Bornas et al., 2001a, 2001b, 2002) suggested that they experienced more fear when they were exposed to sounds than when they were exposed to pictures (for a complete description of the CAFFT see Bornas et al., 2001a). The present study was a controlled test of this hypothesis. Some psychophysiological indexes of heart functioning have received increased attention during the last decade and might be very helpful to get a deeper understanding of the above-mentioned mechanisms. This is the case of the vagal tone and vagal reactivity, which have been related to a

X. Bornas et al. / Biological Psychology 70 (2005) 182–187

growing list of both physical and psychological disorders in infants, children, and adults (see Beauchaine (2001) for a review). In the field of anxiety disorders, HRV is being investigated by different research groups (e.g. Yeragani et al., 2000, 2002a, 2002b; Rao and Yeragani, 2001; Thayer and Lane, 2000; Friedman and Thayer, 1998a; Lyonfields et al., 1995). One of these groups presented a theoretical model – embedded in a dynamical systems framework – based on the assumption that the organism adaptability and flexibility are clearly linked to the regulation of heart rate (Thayer and Lane, 2000). Interestingly, these authors underline the role of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) in the regulation of emotions. Variability of heart rate is believed to be mediated by the two branches of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic), which keep the degree of HRV relatively high. From a dynamical systems perspective, variability in biological systems is thought to be important because phase transitions often occur at certain critical values when the variability is high. Metaphorically, when the variability of the system is too low, the system is unable ‘‘to shift into an attractor or emotion that is appropriate for a given set of environmental demands’’ (Thayer and Lane, 2000, p. 203). Common measures of HRV in the time domain include standard deviation, variance, and the root mean of the squared successive interbeat differences (RMSSD). RMSSD is an estimate of short term components of HRV, and it is one of the four recommended measures for time-domain HRV assessment by the Task Force of The European Society of Cardiology and The North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology (1996). To distinguish among the sources of variability, spectral analysis is the most commonly noninvasive method used, since fluctuations of heart rate occur at different frequencies. A high frequency component (around 0.25 Hz) corresponds to the frequency of respiration (Friedman and Thayer, 1998a), and the power at this band has been taken as an estimator of the vagally mediated HRV as well as of the vagal tone of the organism. Positive and significant correlations (about .90) between high frequency power and RMSSD have been reported by Friedman and Thayer and Thayer and Lane (2000). Since vagal influences on cardiac control are much faster than sympathetic influences (Thayer and Lane, 2000, p. 206), when the fast vagal modulation is decreased the organism is less able to organize an appropriate response to the environmental demands, showing poor emotional self-regulation and behavioral inflexibility. Therefore, vagally mediated HRV seems to be a good index of both the ability to self-regulate emotions and the ability to select the appropriate behavior when confronting any environmental demand (e.g. threatening or feared stimuli). Evidence supporting that model comes from the analysis of the ECG of patients suffering from generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (Lyonfields et al., 1995; Thayer et al., 1996), blood phobia (Friedman and Thayer, 1998a), panic disorder

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(Friedman and Thayer, 1998b), and dental phobia (Johnsen et al., 2003). For instance, Friedman and Thayer (1998a) compared panickers, blood phobics, and normal controls using several measures of HRV, and found lower HF (0.18– 0.35 Hz) power and shorter mean successive differences (MSD) in panickers than in blood phobics, and lower HF power and shorter MSD in blood phobics than in controls. The lack of behavioral flexibility is greater in some disorders (e.g. GAD or panic disorder) than in others (e.g. specific phobias). Therefore a greater cross-situational reduced variability could be expected in the former than in the latter. For example, chronic tension and the tendency to worry about many different topics, which are typical of GAD, would be reflected in low variability across almost any situation. On the other hand, in specific phobics low variability would be found only when confronted with a fearrelated specific situation. Johnsen et al. (2003) found decreased RMSSD in a sample of dental phobics during exposure to feared stimuli (videoclips) as well as during a Stroop task performed after exposure and during a 5 min recovery period following the task (all differences refer to baseline levels). Interestingly, they found that low HRV participants showed longer reaction times to threatening words and incongruent words (the latter being the well-known Stroop effect) than high HRV participants. Longer reaction times are interpreted as an attentional bias which ‘‘involves an interference of the attentional system that results in an automatic allocation of processing resources to the stimuli representing the feared object’’ (Johnsen et al., 2003, p. 83). It could be expected that this allocation of processing resources would lead to a higher anxiety experience. As pointed out by these authors, the inability of low HRV phobics to modulate attention resources ‘‘may serve to perpetuate avoidance of treatment in this population’’ (Johnsen et al., 2003, p. 84). However, when self-reported anxiety was analyzed ‘‘no differences between high and low vagal tone participants was found on any of the questionnaire data’’ (p. 81). If low vagal tone phobics actually avoid treatment, avoidance could be due to the fact that they allocate more resources to the aversive characteristics of such treatment, and therefore these participants should report higher anxiety. That low vagal tone phobics experienced similar anxiety to high vagal tone phobics could be explained by the fact that the whole sample was extremely anxious (p. 83), though in this case all participants would avoid dental treatment. In fact, all phobias involve avoidance of phobic stimuli, but it seems to be worth to study less anxious populations to find out if vagal tone differences also reflect differences in experienced anxiety and therefore in avoidance-of-treatment probabilities. Anxiety, even if it is not severe, could lead many people to avoid treatments that might prevent the emergence of important health problems like phobias. Based on our previous research on the CAFFT as well as on the theoretical model presented by Thayer and Lane, our two main hypotheses were the following:

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 Fearful flyers with low HRV would report more fear compared to high HRV when confronted with feared stimuli.  Feared sounds, both alone and combined with pictures, would evoke more anxiety than feared pictures without sounds in both low HRV and high HRV fearful flyers. In addition, the design of the study allowed for the testing of two additional hypotheses specifically referred to phobic people:  HRV (RMSSD) of phobics would decrease when they were confronted with feared situations. Since an analogue sample was used in this study, this hypothesis (as well as the next one) should be tested only with the more fearful participants (i.e. phobics).  If such a decrease in RMSSD is caused by low vagal tone (i.e. the diminished inhibitory action of the PNS), then the HF power of phobics would decrease when they were confronted with feared situations.

1. Method 1.1. Participants Fifteen fearful students (mean age = 21.50 years, S.D. = 3.17, 10 female) and 15 non-fearful students (mean age = 20.30 years, S.D. = 1.34, 11 female) from the University of the Balearic Islands were selected from a larger subject pool of undergraduate Psychology students (n = 230, 188 female, mean age = 22 years, S.D. = 3.2). They completed the fear of flying questionnaire (FFQ; Bornas et al., 1999), the fear of flying scale (FFS; Haug et al., 1987), and the beck depression inventory (BDI; Beck et al., 1979). The use of clinical analogue samples for these kind of studies is well supported (Borkovec and Rachman, 1979; Friedman and Thayer, 1998a). Although fearful students had not asked for treatment, their scores on the FFQ (M = 157.13, S.D. = 18.92; see Section 2) were close to the scores of clinical samples in previous studies (e.g. Bornas et al., 2001b, reported M = 154.5, S.D. = 38.34 for one group and M = 159.8, S.D. = 47.57 for the other group). However, their scores on the FFS (M = 34.67, S.D. = 9.48) are low compared to those ¨ st et al. (1997) for flight phobics completely reported by O avoiding flying (M = 59.0, S.D. = 7.3). Participants were selected on the basis of the FFQ score (n = 230; M = 75.8; S.D. = 32.6). Subjects who scored higher than 1.5 S.D. above the mean (FFQ > 130) were considered fearful flyers (n = 21). Six students in this group were excluded because of missing or contaminated data in one or more experimental conditions. Subjects who scored higher than 2 S.D. above the mean (FFQ > 140) were considered phobics (n = 10). The 15 non-fearful participants were selected among thirty students scoring within the interval defined as the mean plus or less 1 S.D. (43 < FFQ < 108). All participants in the study scored below 16 (no depression) on the BDI.

1.2. Stimuli and apparatus A sequence of the CAFFT (showing the take-off of the plane) was slightly modified for the experiment. The length of the sequence was 70 s. Nine still pictures with their corresponding sounds (recorded in a real environment) were included. This sequence was stored as sequence pictures and sounds (PS) and two versions were edited and stored: one without sounds (P, pictures) and the other one without pictures (S, sounds). In order to increase the contrast between these conditions and a ‘‘neutral’’ condition, another sequence of the same length was created using relaxing pictures (e.g. landscape) and classical music (C). All four sequences were then included in a multimedia software to allow for an easy selection by the researcher (see Section 1.3). The presentation of the stimuli was controlled by a 500 MHz Pentium PC. Sessions were conducted in a dimly lit and soundattenuated room. ECG was recorded in a Lead II configuration (a positive electrode on the left ankle, a negative electrode on the right wrist, and the ground electrode on the right ankle) using 10 mm Ag/AgCl electrodes. The signal was recorded on a BIOPAC 30 monitoring system and the sample rate was set to 200 Hz. Separate recordings for each condition were stored on the hard disk of another PC. HRV was measured as the root mean of the squared successive RR differences in milliseconds (RMSSD). 1.3. Procedure Upon arrival at the laboratory, participants were seated in a comfortable chair and informed consent was obtained. Participants were positioned approximately 1.5 m from a 17 in. monitor and sensors were attached for psychophysiological recording. Participants were then told that baseline recordings of the ECG would be performed and the experimenter exited the recording room. A 5 min adaptation phase followed, where the participant listened to low volume classical music. The ECG recordings for this phase were named and stored on the hard disk. A 70 s length, artefact-free ECG recording was taken from the middle part of this phase and was used as the baseline (BL). Then the experimenter entered the room and told the participant that the experiment was about to start. A brief explanation of what was going to happen through the session was given at this moment: you will see some pictures on the computer’s screen, and/or you will hear some sounds through the earphones. Sometimes the pictures or the sounds may cause anxiety, and other times you may find them relaxing. There will be four presentations. After each presentation I will ask you several questions regarding your feelings, your physical reactions, etc. Then you will wait for 2 min until the next presentation. Then the experimenter exited the room and waited for 2 min to start the first presentation (sequence PS, P, S or C; see below). After the last sequence was presented,

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Table 1 Significant contrasts on self-reported anxiety among low HRV controls, high HRV controls, low HRV fearful flyers, and high HRV fearful flyers Condition

LC (M, S.D.)

HC (M, S.D.)

LF (M, S.D.)

HF (M, S.D.)

T ratio, p value, d value (d.f. = 28 in all cases)

Pictures and sounds

1.43 (0.53)

1.87 (0.83)

5.43 (0.97)

3.12 (2.03)

Pictures

1.43 (0.53)

1.25 (0.46)

2.57 (0.46)

1.12 (0.35)

Sounds

2.43 (1.13)

1.37 (0.52)

5.14 (2.61)

3.25 (1.91)

LF > LC, 5.94, p = .000, d = 4.76; LF > HC, 5.45, p = .000, d = 3.73; LF > HF, 3.53, p = .009, d = 1.33 LF > HC, 3.27, p = .018, d = 1.23; LF > HF, 3.59, p = .008, d = 1.38 LF > HC, 4.26, p = .001, d = 1.96

LC, low HRV control; HC, high HRV control; LF, low HRV fearful; HF, high HRV fearful.

a 2 min recording period of ECG recording was performed. After each sequence, fear was assessed using 1–9 point scale (1 = no fear, 9 = extreme fear). To avoid or minimize the potential confounding effect of presenting the different sequences in the same order (i.e. habituation), they were presented randomly. One hundred random combinations of numbers 1–4 were generated by a computer (each number corresponding to one of the four conditions). From this list, consecutive repeated combinations were excluded. These were the combinations used with both groups (i.e., the first fearful subject and the first control followed the first order in the list, the second subjects followed the second combination in the list, and so on). In this way, changes in any of the observed measures might be attributed to the sequence itself (e.g. flight sounds without pictures).

repeated-measures group (low HRV fearful/high HRV fearful/low HRV control/high HRV control)  condition (PS/P/S) ANOVA was carried out on anxiety scores, and revealed significant main effects for group, F(3,26) = 11.22, p = .000, and condition, F(2,52) = 21.51, p = .000, as well as a significant group  condition interaction, F(6,52) = 4.42, p = .001. No differences in anxiety emerged for the control groups across conditions. The low HRV and the high HRV fearful flyers reported more anxiety in condition PS than in condition P, t(28) = 5.53, p = .000, d = 2.21, and t(28) = 4.13, p = .000, d = 1.30, respectively, and they also experienced more anxiety in condition S than in condition P, t(28) = 5.03, p = .000, d = 1.14, and t(28) = 4.44, p = .000, d = 1.47, respectively. Differences between groups are reported in Table 1. 2.2. Heart rate variability: RMSSD and HF power

1.4. Statistics A repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) was conducted for each measure. The number of factors and levels included in each ANOVA varied according to the hypothesis tested. Specific designs are described in each subsection of Section 2. Alpha level was set to .05 and adjusted (Bonferroni) for multiple comparisons. All probabilities will be carried to only three decimal places. Sphericity could be assumed in all ANOVAs. Effect sizes were calculated using pooled standard deviations and corrected for bias related to small sample size (Hedges and Olkin, 1985). All the analyses were computed using SPSS 12.0S for Windows1 (SPSS Inc. 1989–2003).

2. Results 2.1. Self-reported anxiety As expected, differences between fearful and non-fearful (control) groups were found in the FFQ, t(28) = 14.75, p = .000, d = 5.24, as well as the FFS, t(23) = 7.13, p = .000, d = 2.81. The fearful and the control group were divided into low and high HRV participants based on the median split of RMSSD during baseline, following a procedure similar to the one recently reported by Hansen et al. (2003). A two-way

To compare the changes in HRV and HF (0.15–0.4 Hz) power of the phobic participants (N = 10) in conditions PS, P, S, C, and BL, a repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted, followed by post-hoc analysis. The ANOVA conducted on HRV, F(4,36) = 3.707, p = .013, revealed a significant difference between conditions S and C, being the phobics HRV lower in condition S than in C, t(18) = 3.75, p = .045. The ANOVA conducted on HF power yielded no significant differences.

3. Discussion Both low and high HRV fearful flyers reported higher levels of anxiety when confronted with flight-related sounds (alone or with pictures) than when confronted with pictures without sounds, thus lending support to the idea that sounds are crucial to evoke fear related to flying, as noted in previous anecdotal reports. However, while low HRV fearful flyers reported higher levels of anxiety than any other group in condition PS, high HRV fearful flyers did not report higher anxiety than controls neither in this condition nor in the other two (P and S). A similar pattern was found in condition P: the anxiety reported by low HRV fearful flyers was higher than the anxiety reported by the high HRV fearful flyers and the high HRV controls, but not higher than the anxiety reported by the low HRV controls. Both fearful

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groups, as well as the low HRV controls, reported equivalent levels of anxiety in condition S, and low HRV fearful flyers experienced more anxiety than high HRV controls. From a clinical point of view these results underline the need to distinguish between low and high HRV fearful flyers before treating them with any kind of progressive exposure therapy (e.g. the CAFFT). Since high HRV fearful flyers in our study did not report more anxiety than non-fearful controls in any condition, avoidance of treatment should not be expected from this population (at least avoidance due to anxiety). On the other hand, for the same reason, avoidance of even moderately aversive treatments might be expected from low HRV fearful flyers since they experienced more anxiety than any other group when the less aversive condition (pictures alone) were presented to them. However, regarding conditions S and PS (the aversive ones, as indicated by ratings) our results are not conclusive. Both low and high HRV fearful flyers reported equivalent levels of anxiety in condition S (in agreement with the results reported by Johnsen et al. (2003)), but low HRV fearful flyers experienced higher anxiety in condition PS. Perhaps adding pictures to the feared sounds might increase the complexity of the feared stimuli and thus it might require an even longer (or more intense) processing, i.e. the automatic allocation of more processing resources, which in turn would lead to higher anxiety. Within the dynamical systems theoretical model (Thayer and Lane, 2000) the differences among the four groups reported in Table 1 support the general idea that low variable systems are less able to shift to an appropriate emotion for a given set of threatening demands. As previously pointed out, the high HRV fearful group could not be distinguished from the control groups at any of the three feared conditions. All three groups experienced equivalent levels of anxiety. Changes in HRV (RMSSD) across conditions were examined for the phobic participants in this study, and the only significant difference was found between conditions S and C. Condition C (relaxing pictures and classical music) was created to increase the contrast between the anxiety generated by the feared stimuli (conditions PS, P, and S) and the relax induced by those stimuli. In agreement with the theoretical model presented by Thayer and Lane (2000), lower HRV was found when phobics were exposed to threatening stimuli. However, (a) lower HRV was also expected in conditions PS and P, and (b) the difference in HRV from baseline to the HRV in these three conditions was expected to be significant. Failure to find decreased RMSSD in condition P can be explained by the fact that pictures did not generate high anxiety. However, we have no explanation for the failure to find lower RMSSD in condition PS, since the same sounds than in condition S were presented to phobics. On the other hand, non-significant differences from baseline to anxiety conditions might be due to the fact that phobic participants were somewhat anxious during the baseline period. In fact, they were ‘‘waiting’’ and they could cognitively anticipate the stimuli as they knew they were about to participate in a fear of flying study.

No differences were found when changes in HRV (HF power) across conditions were examined for the phobic participants. High correlations between RMSSD and HF power are well documented in the literature, so that the easiest account for the lack of differences may be the short ECG recordings (70 s at 200 Hz) used in this study, the enormous variance found in the HF power data, and the low anxiogenic power of some stimuli. Finally, several limitations of the study should be acknowledged. The high variance found in several of the observed data could at least partially be explained by the small sample size. Some differences that have not reached statistical significance because of the extreme variance of the data could be statistically significant in a future study with a larger sample. The use of an analogue sample can be seen as the second limitation of the study. Clinical flight phobics, unlike our participants, look for treatment, have stronger motivation, and usually show higher levels of anxiety. Therefore our results should be considered preliminary when interpreting their clinical or therapeutic meaning. The goals of the study, however, were located at a different level (mainly physiological) and the results are just a first glance at ‘‘what happens there’’ when some stimuli proven to be effective in clinical settings (Bornas et al., 2002) are presented to fearful and non-fearful flyers. The therapeutic and clinical usefulness of measuring and evaluating the HRV should be tested in future studies with clinical samples. The third limitation of the study is related to the problem of obtaining the appropriate baseline level. We have not used a resting condition as an appropriate baseline for our study. Instead we tried to get participants relaxed during the adaptation phase (with the help of music), and we took the recordings obtained during this period as an appropriate baseline. The reason why we did so is that we tried to neutralize the natural anxiety that phobic people experience when they go into a Psychobiology laboratory and they know that they are about to participate in an experiment. The other baseline was condition C. As the opposite to condition A, which included flight-related pictures and sounds, pleasant images and quiet classical music were included in C. Because of the nature and the aims of the experiment, in our opinion and in accordance with Jennings et al. (1992), these ‘‘vanilla’’ baseline periods were the most appropriate.

Acknowledgement This study was funded by Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology (Grant BSO2002-03807).

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