High-accuracy simulation of density driven flow in porous media Peter Bastian, Klaus Johannsen, Stefan Lang, Christian Wieners, Volker Reichenberger, Gabriel Wittum Interdisziplin¨ ares Zentrum f¨ ur Wissenschaftliches Rechnen Technical Simulation Group Universit¨ at Heidelberg Im Neuenheimer Feld 368 69120 Heidelberg

Abstract. A three-dimensional test case for the density driven flow equations in porous media recently proposed by Oswald, Scheidegger and Kinzelbach is investigated numerically. It was shown in [14] that the results from the physical experiment can be reproduced if parameters are adjusted correctly and that a mathematical benchmark can be defined as an idealization of the physical experiment. Intensive numerical investigations were carried out, with calculations on up to 16.7 million grid points that required the efficient solution of linear systems with more than 35 million unknowns.

1

Introduction

Density driven flow is characterized by flow patterns that are influenced by density differences in the fluid system. This flow type appears in porous media in such highly relevant applications as sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers, upconing of saline waters from deep aquifers, flow around salt domes used as repositories, propagation of dense plumes emanating from land fills and geothermal heat production. If the effects of density driven flow in these situations are neglected, the results can be severely wrong even for small density differences. However, since the resulting equations are difficult to solve numerically because of their coupled nonlinear nature, too simplistic models are often employed. Accurate simulation of density driven flow still poses a considerable challenge even to combinations of todays most advanced software tools and computing resources. In this paper a recently proposed benchmark problem is investigated. This test case has been studied experimentally and computationally, and only by employing massive parallel computing was it possible to simulate the fluid flow in a fully satisfactory way. After introducing the experiment we describe the governing equations of density driven flow and explain how the mathematical benchmark problem was derived from the experiment. Then we describe the numerical methods employed in the solution process and present results from the simulation.

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Bastian, Johannsen, Lang, Wieners,Reichenberger, Wittum

Fig. 1. The saltpool experiment

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The saltpool experiment

The three-dimensional test cases proposed by Oswald, Scheidegger and Kinzelbach describe a series of laboratory experiments for a typical variable-density problem which involves stable layering of saltwater below freshwater and time-dependent upconing of the saltwater due to water discharge. If the density differences between saltwater and freshwater are varied, the flow pattern changes significantly due to gravity effects. Figure 1 shows the setup of the experiment. In phase one, the cube of side length L filled with a homogeneous porous medium of porosity n and freshwater is recharged with saltwater from the hole in the lower center of the cube, causing a discharge of freshwater through the upper four holes. In the second phase all holes are closed and the saltwater layer equilibrates to an almost horizontal distribution with a thin mixing zone. In the third phase the freshwater is recharged through the inflow hole at a constant rate, with outflow only through the hole in the opposing upper corner. The governing parameters for this phase are shown in Table 1. The salt mass fraction varies over time at the outflow hole. Two initial maximum salt mass fractions are considered here, 1% and 10% which will be labeled saltpool case 1 and saltpool case 2. The parameters in Table 1, are: Vs Dm K αl , αt ρf , ρs µf

Volume of saltwater recharged during phase 1. Molecular diffusion coefficient. Intrinsic permeability. Longitudinal and transversal dispersion lengths. Minimum and maximum densities. Dynamic viscosity of fresh water.

We refer to the values of the salt mass fraction at the corresponding points as the vectors g1exp ∈ R26 for saltpool case 1 and g2exp ∈ R31 for saltpool

High-accuracy simulation of density driven flow in porous media

3

Table 1. Parameters of the experiment

cmax Vs T3 L Q3 n Dm K αl αt ρf ρs /ρf − 1 µf

saltpool, case 1 ref. min. max. 1% 8.64 8412 8410 8414 200 199 201 1.89 1.872 1.908 0.372 0.370 0.375 10 7 12 10 8.9 11 1.2 0.6 1.5 0.12 0.03 0.25 998.23 7.6 7.0 8.2 1.002 0.93 1.02

saltpool, case 2 ref. min. max. 10% 8.9964 9594 9592 9596 ditto 1.83 1.802 1.848 ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto 998.23 73.5 72.5 74.5 ditto

units

10−4 10−3 10−6 10−10 10−10 10−3 10−3 10−3 10−3

− m3 s m m3 s−1 − m2 s−1 m2 m m kg m−3 − kg m−1 s−1

case 2. Figure 2 shows the graph of the linear interpolation of these vectors vs. time. Fig. 4 shows the contour-lines corresponding to the values 0.1cmax and 0.5cmax in the vertical cross section through the inflow and the outflow hole at the end of phase 3 together with numerical results obtained there. For a complete description of the experiments performed see [18].

3

Basic equations

The derivation of the governing equations based on mass conservation principles can be found in [4, 11, 15]; we only state the resulting system: n∂t ρ(c) + ∇ · (ρ(c)v) = ρ(C)Q, n∂t (ρ(c)c) + ∇ · (ρ(c)(cv − D∇c)) = ρ(C)CQ,

(1) (2)

with the source and sink terms Q(x), the density ρ(c), the diffusion-dispersion tensor D(v) and the the mass averaged velocity v given by Darcy’s law v = −K/µ(c)(∇p − ρ(c)g),

(3)

where µ(c) is the dynamic viscosity and g the vector of gravity. Finally, C either denotes the salt mass fraction of the injected brine (Q > 0) or C ≡ c in case of a sink (Q < 0). Inserting (3) into (1) and (2) leads to a nonlinear system of two partial differential equations for the unknown salt mass fraction c and the pressure p. To close the system, material laws for ρ and µ and an expression for the diffusion-dispersion tensor have to be provided. For ρ and

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(5)

ρf = ρ(0) is the density of fresh water and ρs correspond to the value at the maximum salt mass fraction cmax . For the diffusion-dispersion tensor we use Scheidegger’s ansatz [20] D(v) = Dm + αt |v|I + (αl − αt )vv/|v|. Initial conditions have to be given only for the salt mass fraction c(x, 0) = c0 (x). No initial condition is needed for the pressure; it is determined by (1) which is elliptic for p due to the negligible compressibility. It is a consequence of the idealizations of the benchmark problem defined in section 4 that only (no-)flux conditions for both c and p are used, n · (vc − D∇c) = 0,

n · v = 0.

A detailed discussion of boundary conditions can be found [15].

(6)

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Fig. 3. Breakthrough curves obtained by d3 f for the parameters from Table 1. saltpool 0.07

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4

The benchmark problem

While physical benchmarks consist of precisely measured experiments under laboratory conditions, a mathematical benchmark defines a mathematical problem that is an approximation of the physical problem. The mathematical benchmark doesn’t contain errors due to inappropriate physical modeling, the benchmark solution is compared to the exact solution of the mathematical problem. In most cases the exact solution of the problem does not exist in analytical form; in these cases highly accurate reference solutions have to be employed for comparisons. Based on the experiments, two benchmark problems corresponding to the setup of saltpool case 1 and saltpool case 2 were defined in [14]. In order to derive well-defined mathematical problem descriptions some idealizations have to be made. Additionally, some parameters of the experiment have to be adapted if the solution of mathematical descriptions should reproduce the experimental results. For the benchmark problem only the third phase of the experiment is considered. The definition of the mathematical problem consists of the equations to be solved, the material laws, the geometry and the initial and boundary conditions. The major part has already been defined in the previous sections. We approximate the geometry by a cube of side length L = 0.2m. The inflow and outflow holes are not modeled geometrically but by inserting point sinks and sources at the corresponding corners of the cube. The initial condition

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Bastian, Johannsen, Lang, Wieners,Reichenberger, Wittum

for the salt mass fraction c is the continuous, piecewise linear function defined by   if x3 ≤ xm − ω/2 1 c(x, 0) = cmax 1/2 − (x3 − xm )/ω if xm − ω/2 < x3 < xm + ω/2,   0 if xm + ω/2 ≤ x3

(7)

where xm = Vs /nL2 denotes the vertical position of the initial mixing zone, assuming a perfect horizontal interface between saltwater and freshwater. ω is the width of the transition zone, and x3 the z-component of x. xm depends on the parameters of the experiment while ω is a new parameter for the test cases. It has been derived from the experimental results and we choose the value ω = 8mm in both cases. Fig. 3 shows the breakthrough curves from a numerical simulation using the values from Table 1 on a mesh with 262.144 grid points and a fixed time step size of ∆t = 70.1s for saltpool case 1 and ∆t = 39.975s for saltpool case 2. The computed breakthrough curves exhibit a correct qualitative behavior, but only a modestly correct approximation of the measured curves. Similar observations have already been made by [1, 17, 18]. In order to match the experimental results and to obtain a mathematical benchmark that models the experiment, a parameter fit was carried out by [14]. There details can be found on how the parameters K, n and αt have to be modified and how the actual mathematical benchmark is defined.

5

Numerical simulation

The program package d3 f [5] is used for solving equations (1)-(3) from the benchmark problem. d3 f has been designed to simulate variable density flow in porous media in two- and three-dimensional complex geometries. It consists of three major parts plus various additional tools. The major parts are the preprocessor, the simulator and the postprocessor. The preprocessor supports the interactive design of the geometry and the specification of the physical parameters. The simulator is a tool to discretize and solve the density driven flow equations in porous media. It includes tools for the grid generation. Finally, the postprocessor is a highly efficient visualization and data extraction tool. It is based on the software package GRAP E (see [16]). The simulator is based on the software package U G [3], a toolbox for discretizing and solving partial differential equations on unstructured grids. simulator uses all the advanced features of U G ranging from handling complex geometries in two and three dimensions to adaptive multigrid methods. More precisely, simulator can handle polygonal shaped domains in 2d and polyhedral shaped domains in 3d. U G can handle hybrid meshes, i.e. triangles and quadrilaterals in 2d and tetrahedra, pyramids, prisms and hexahedra in 3d. In combination with error estimators the grids can be refined and

High-accuracy simulation of density driven flow in porous media Level i 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

hi [mm] 200 100 50 25 12.5 6.25 3.125 1.5625 0.78125

# of hexahedra 1 8 64 512 4, 096 32, 768 262, 144 2, 097, 152 16, 777, 216

7

# of grid points 8 27 125 729 4, 913 35, 937 274, 625 2, 146, 689 16, 974, 593

Table 2. The hierarchy of grids

de-refined locally and the time step size can also be variably adjusted. simulator uses a fully implicit/fully coupled solution technique for the vertexcentered finite volume discretization with a consistent velocity approximation. A monotonous first order and a non-monotonous second order spatial discretization are available. In the temporal discretization a first order implicit Euler or a second order diagonally implicit Runge-Kutta method can be applied. The solution strategy for the nonlinear algebraic equations is based on a Newton method using a multigrid iteration for the linear sub-problems. All parts of U G as well as simulator are parallelized so that simulator can be employed on a wide range of computers from PCs to massively parallel supercomputers. The simulations in the next section use a hexahedral grid that is well suited for the cubic geometry. A hierarchy of grids with nine levels ranging from 0 to 8 is employed for the multigrid algorithm used for the solution of the linearized equations. The grids are created by successive uniform refinement. Table 5 shows the grid spacing, the number of hexahedra and the number of grid points n on the different levels. The spatial discretization of (1), (2) uses vertex-centered finite-volumes for a continuous, piecewise trilinear ansatz-space. No stabilization is used for the convective terms and a consistent velocity approximation [6] is applied. The discretization is locally mass-conserving and second order consistent for the unknowns c and p. The boundary conditions (6) are applied in a weak sense. For the time discretization we use a second order diagonally implicit Runge-Kutta method with time step size ∆t. The scheme is second order consistent and unconditionally stable both in the L2 and the L∞ norm [9,19]. The time discretization is described in detail in [14]. For the salt mass fraction the initial distribution c(x, 0) is given by (7). Since this function cannot be represented exactly on the grids a L2 -projection is used to establish the initial conditions. This results in a non-monotonous function with an exact total initial salt mass.

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Bastian, Johannsen, Lang, Wieners,Reichenberger, Wittum

For each time step a system of nonlinear algebraic equations has to be solved twice; here this is done by a Newton method with a nonlinear defect reduction by a factor of 10−6 in the Euclidean norm. The linear system is obtained by an exact calculation of the Jacobian—numerical differentiation introduces errors that destroy the superlinear convergence. Due to the non-monotonous spatial discretization and the full linearization including the dependence on e.g. the Darcy velocity within the transport equation, the Jacobians are not M-matrices. Standard smoothing procedures cannot be applied successfully. Therefore a modified point-block SSOR-iteration is used instead [12]. On the average 9 linear V-cycle multigrid iterations are required to solve a linear system. The multigrid method is accelerated using Bi-CGStab [2, 21].

6

Numerical Results

In order to provide reliable reference solutions for the benchmark in absence of analytical solutions the convergence order of the method of the preceding section was investigated numerically. The time step sizes for the two test cases are ∆ti1 = (1/2)i 70.1sec and ∆ti2 = (1/2)i 39.975 sec,

i = 0, 1, 2,

(8)

where i denotes the time grid level. In Figure 4 we show the iso-lines of the salt mass fraction (experiment: 0.1%, 0.5%; simulation: 0.1%, 0.5%, 0.9%) for test case 1 and the salt mass fraction (experiment: 1%, 5%; simulation: 1%, 5%, 9%) for saltpool test case 2. For saltpool case 1 a time step width of δt = 17.525 sec was used and a time step width of δt = 19.9875 sec for saltpool case 2. Both solutions were computed on grid level 7. The salt mass fraction is evaluated in the diagonal cross section passing vertically through the inflow and outflow hole (see Fig. 2). The numerical results are in excellent agreement with the experimental data. To illustrate the grid convergence we compare a sequence of breakthrough curves obtained on successively refined grids, both in space and time. We have chosen the following values gsi,j for the linear interpolation of the breakthrough curves gs−1,4 gs0,5 gs1,6 gs2,7 g10,8

grid grid grid grid grid

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4, 5, 6, 7, 8,

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size size size size size

−1 0 1 2 0

The time step size parameter is used according to (8) and s is either 1 for saltpool case 1 or 2 for saltpool case 2. For the coarsest spatial grid (level 4) −1 we have chosen a time step size of ∆t−1 1 = 140.2s resp. ∆t2 = 79.95s. For

High-accuracy simulation of density driven flow in porous media

9

the analysis given above these time step sizes could not be adopted since they lead to convergence problems on finer spatial grids. A good approximation for saltpool, case 1 is achieved already on the coarse grid levels (see Fig. 6). For saltpool, case 2 a qualitatively correct solution is obtained only on finer grids, level ≥ 6 (also in Fig. 6). The size of the time step turned out to be of minor importance for the discretization scheme used. The computations on grid level 8 with 16 million nodes represent the largest simulation up to date with software based on U G. The computation ran for 28 days on 128 processors of the IBM RS/6000 SP-256.

7

Conclusions

A careful analysis of experimental results and numerical simulations leads to the definition of a mathematical benchmark that models a physical experiment. By employing advanced numerical simulation methods and parallel computing it is possible to compute a reference solution that can serve as a basis for comparisons of solution techniques in the emerging field of density driven flow in porous media.

Acknowledgements We gratefully thank the Scientific Supercomputing Center, Karlsruhe, Germany for access to the IBM RS/6000 SP-256 parallel computer. The machine has been used to perform the high-resolution simulation for saltpool, case 2 on 16, 974, 593 grid points.

References 1. P. Ackerer and A. Younes. On the modelling of density driven flow. In International Conference on Calibration and Reliability in Groundwater Modelling, pages 13 – 21. IAHS/AISH, ETH Z¨ urich, 20-23 Sept. 1999. 2. R. Barrett, M. Berry, T. Chan J. Demmel, J. Donato, J. Dongarra, V. Eijkhout, R. Pozo, Ch. Romine, and H. van der Vorst. Templates for the Solution of Linear Systems: Building Blocks for Iterative Methods, 2nd Edition. SIAM, Philadelphia, PA, 1994. 3. P. Bastian, K. Birken, K. Johannsen, S. Lang, N. Neuss, H. Rentz-Reichert, and C. Wieners. UG - a flexible software toolbox for solving partial differential equations. Computing and Visualization in Science, 1:27–40, 1997. 4. J. Bear and Y. Bachmat. Introduction to Modeling of Transport Phenomena in Porous Media. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991. 5. E. Fein(ed). d3f - Ein Programmpaket zur Modellierung von Dichtestr¨ omungen. GRS, Braunschweig, GRS - 139, ISBN 3 - 923875 - 97 - 5, 1998. 6. P. Frolkovic. Consistent velocity approximation for density driven flow and transport. Advanced Computational Methods in Engineering, eds. R. van Keer et. al., pages 603–611, 1998.

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7. W. Hackbusch. Multi-Grid Methods and Applications. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1985. 8. W. Hackbusch. Iterative L¨ osung grosser schwachbesetzter Gleichungssysteme. Teubner-Studienb¨ ucher: Mathematik, 1991. 9. E. Hairer and G. Wanner. Solving ordinary differential equations II. SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1991. 10. A.W. Herbert, C.P. Jackson, and D.A. Lever. Coupled groundwater flow and solute transport with fluid density strongly dependent upon concentration. Water Resources Research, 24:1781–1795, 1988. 11. Ekkehard O. Holzbecher. Modeling Density-Driven Flow in Porous Media. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1998. 12. K. Johannsen. Modified SSOR - a smoother for non M-matrices. in preparation. 13. K. Johannsen. On the stability of the Crank-Nicolson-scheme for density driven flow in porous media. unpublished. 14. K. Johannsen, W. Kinzelbach, S. Oswald, G. Wittum Numerical Simulation of density driven flow in porous media Advances in Water Resources, submitted. 15. Anton Leijnse. Three-dimensional modeling of coupled flow and transport in porous media. PhD thesis, University of Notre Dame, Indiana, 1992. 16. A. Wierse M. Rumpf. GRAPE, eine objektorientierte Visualisierungs- und Numerikplattform. Informatik Forschung und Entwicklung, 7:145–151, 1992. 17. S. Oswald. Dichtestr¨ omungen in por¨ osen Medien: Dreidimensionale Experimente und Modellierung. PhD thesis, Institut f¨ ur Hydromechanik und Wasserwirtschaft, ETH Z¨ urich, 1998. 18. S.E. Oswald, M. Scheidegger, and W. Kinzelbach. A three-dimensional physical benchmark test for verification of variable-density driven flow in time. Water Resources Research, submitted. 19. R. Rannacher. Numerical analysis of nonstationary fluid flow. Technical Report SFB 123, Preprint 492, University of Heidelberg, Germany, November 1988. 20. A.E. Scheidegger. General theory of dispersion in porous media. Journal of Geophysical Research, 66:3273, 1961. 21. H. van der Vorst. Bi-CGSTAB: A fast and smoothly converging variant of bicg for the solution of nonsymmetric linear systems. SIAM J. Sci. Stat. Comp., 13:631 – 644, 1992.

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experiment simulation

experiment simulation

Fig. 4. Iso-lines of the salt mass fraction at t = 8412 sec for saltpool, case 1 , Experiment: 0.1%, 0.5%; simulation: 0.1%, 0.5%, 0.9% (top) and iso-lines of the salt mass fraction at t = 9594 sec for saltpool, case 2 , Experiment: 1%, 5%; simulation: 1%, 5%, 9%.

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