Introduction

Developing preparedness for flexible delivery of training in enterprises Peter J. Smith Ian Robertson and Lyn Wakefield

The authors Peter J. Smith is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Social and Cultural Studies in Education at Deakin University, Victoria, Australia. Ian Robertson is Manager, Educational Product Services, at Box Hill Institute of TAFE, Victoria, Australia. Lyn Wakefield is a Consultant at the Gordon Institute of TAFE, Victoria, Australia. Keywords Flexibility, Self-directed learning, Training needs, Training Abstract On a basis of research and literature review, Smith, in 2001, suggested a model for the development of preparedness of learners and their workplaces to support the flexible delivery of training in enterprises. Using the model as a framework, he then developed a detailed set of strategies that may be used in operating workplaces to develop learners and workplaces for effective flexible delivery. The research reported here was designed to test that strategy set in 12 different enterprises to assess the feasibility of their implementation in operating workplaces. The research shows that a majority of suggested strategies are feasible for implementation; some are feasible with qualification; and a minority were not seen as feasible. Electronic access The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1366-5626.htm

Journal of Workplace Learning Volume 14 . Number 6 . 2002 . pp. 222±232 # MCB UP Limited . ISSN 1366-5626 DOI 10.1108/13665620210441180

Although the flexible delivery of training in the workplace has been embraced since the early 1990s by governments, training authorities and enterprises, several writers have drawn attention to reasons for caution in the implementation of these methods. In Britain, for example, Sadler-Smith et al. (2000a, p. 475) have reviewed the arguments in support of the implementation of ’’ flexible modes of training’’ as part of the development of enterprise competitiveness. The evidence they presented from their research in British enterprises indicated that learners were not generally favourably disposed towards flexible methods based on the sort of independent learning normally associated with distance education where the learner is geographically separated from the instructor. They speculated that enthusiasm for these methods is possibly greater among ’’ converted and privileged groups (such as managers)’’ (Sadler-Smith et al., 2000a, p. 475). In later work Sadler-Smith et al. (2000b) have shown that even among human resource practitioners in the UK, work-based and traditional methods of learning were preferred over self-directed methods. Sadler-Smith et al. (2000a) and Smith (2002) have each advocated the integration of more structured and personalised workplace learning experiences to supplement flexible delivery methods that are based in a distance education model that results in disembodied learning (Beckett, 1997) and requires well developed skills of self-direction. In their review of conceptualisations of flexible delivery for vocational training, Evans and Smith (1999) drew attention to a common thread being the need for independence and self-directedness among learners. Similar comment has been made by Boote (1998), Warner et al. (1998) and Evans (2000). Apart from the research indicating a less than favourable response at the attitudinal level towards flexible training methods (Sadler-Smith et al., 2000a), other research at a learning preferences and strategies level has shown that learners are typically not ready, or well-prepared, for these more independent learning methods. In an The research reported in this paper was supported by Research Grant NR0023 from the National Research and Evaluations Committee. For the complete project report see Smith et al. (2002).

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Australian study of some 500 vocational learners, Warner et al. (1998) have shown that learner preferences, as measured by the Guglielmino and Guglielmino (1991) Learning Preferences Assessment, are typically not ready for the self-directed learning required by flexible delivery, and have not typically developed the strategies necessary to engage successfully in that form of learning. That research also showed a low preference among vocational students for textually presented learning material, and a low preference for online learning. Also working in Australia, Smith (2000a) has shown with a sample of 1,252 vocational learners, and using the Canfield (1980) Learning Styles Inventory, a preference for learning that is instructor led and structured in a sociocultural learning environment with peers and the instructor, and for learning that is nontext based in presentation. Additionally, Smith (2000b) has also shown that vocational learners have not typically developed the cognitive and metacognitive strategies usually associated with effective independent and self-directed learning. In that same research, Smith (2000b) also showed that enterprises had not typically developed the policies, processes and training support skills required to support workers engaged in flexible learning programs in their workplaces. Similar to earlier research (Brooker and Butler, 1997; Harris et al., 1998; Unwin and Wellington, 1995), Smith’s (2000b) research showed that enterprises typically lacked clearly articulated training policies; training structures that were inadequately defined such that learners were uncertain what was expected of them, and who may be available to assist them. Enterprises had not typically provided training to trainers and other possible workplace support personnel to enable them to develop and support self-directed learning among trainees, nor to effectively use flexible learning materials in the workplace, and to develop and encourage learning within a community of practice. Additionally, the research indicated, similarly to observations by Whittaker (1995) and Evans (2001), a clear tension between the demands of production schedules and the demands made by learning needs. As Calder and McCollum (1998) observed, there was evidence that engagement with learning through the less formal flexible delivery was more begrudged

by enterprises, and more likely to be seen as time out from work than is typically the case with formal training programs that require the removal of the learner from the workplace to engage in a specific training program for a defined length of time. These research findings present a considerable challenge to the successful implementation of flexible delivery methods that are based on, or even partially based on, the provision of learning programs that require independent learning on the part of the learner. Where these learning programs are textually presented, clearly the challenge becomes even greater. The argument here is not to abandon these methods of training delivery which are favoured by government policy in Australia and the UK and which are considerably enhanced and liberalised by new communication technologies (Stewart and Winter, 1995). Rather, the challenge becomes one of providing strategies that develop a readiness among learners and their workplaces to engage successfully with these delivery methods. On a basis of the research evidence and literature review Smith (2001) has developed a model for the development of both learner and workplace readiness for flexible delivery. That model, shown as Figure 1, identifies in the learner development space, several focuses for the development of learner preparedness and, in the workplace development space, a number of focuses for the development of workplace preparedness. Within each of these focuses a number of specific strategies were proposed as useful. These specific strategies are developed in full in Smith (2001). Within the model shown in Figure 1 these specific strategies combine in the strategy space to result in a comprehensive set of suggested strategies. The present study was designed to test in operating workplaces the feasibility of the strategy sets developed for preparing learners and their workplaces for flexible delivery in the workplace. The view taken here is that the original Smith (2001) strategies were developed on a basis of research and literature survey, but remained to be tested for their feasibility. It is one thing to develop a theoretical set of strategies, and another to test them for their feasibility in the workplace. Strategies identified as feasible through enterprise-based research begin to fill in the strategy space of the model shown in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 Spatial model of development of preparedness for flexible delivery in the workplace

Method Participating personnel The research was undertaken in several stages. The first stage was to prepare the strategies identified through research (Smith, 2001) into a format ready for interview with enterprise-based personnel. Interviews were conducted with the training manager of each enterprise, or with the management person with responsibility for training in the enterprise. It was not feasible to work through every strategy with each enterprise. Accordingly, the strategies were condensed to a number of smaller sets, with each set representing a collection of thematically related strategies. The design of the interview schedule, and the discussion that took place with each enterprise, were intended to elicit response to as many of the original strategies as was possible. The themes under which strategies were organised were those shown in the learner development space and the workplaces development space shown in Figure 1. Interviews were audio-taped and transcribed to text. Each text was then content analysed to provide a response to each strategy from the interviewee. Following the transcription of interviews to text, interviewers were provided with the text and asked to verify accuracy. The next stage of the research was conducted through a focus group in each of the enterprises. These focus groups comprised supervisors and trainers and their purpose was to explore ways in which strategies, identified through the interviews as

feasible, had been implemented in workplaces, or might be implemented. Focus group sessions were also audio-taped and transcribed to text and comprised a small number (typically two, three or four) of people. Implementation strategies were identified through review of transcripts. Participating enterprises The data collection was based in 12 different enterprises. Enterprises selected collectively provided a range of size, industry sector, structure, range of activity, and location in terms of regional or metropolitan. Additionally, since the research required enterprises to have had experience with flexible delivery in the workplace, and to have given thought to it, each enterprise had some experience with flexible delivery as a workplace training method. In summary, the bases for selection of this group of enterprises were several: there is both regional and metropolitan representation; a range of size is represented; a range of industry sectors and enterprise core business is represented; enterprises with very focused activities are represented, along with enterprises that have a wide range of services or products; a range of business structures is represented; enterprises with distributed workforces are represented, together with enterprises that operate only on one site; all enterprises had a commitment to training, as known by the researchers, and

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had used a range of flexible delivery techniques for training; and all enterprises had a relationship with at least one of the institutions participating in the research, such that personal relationships enhanced willingness to participate, and willingness to talk in depth.

Automotive: (12) an organisation providing support to the vehicle sales and service industry. Selection of that organisation also gave us access to the small businesses it supported.

The 12 selected enterprises can be described as: Manufacturing: (1) a large manufacturer (420 employees) of metals products, regionally located, with strong commitment to training and to flexible delivery; (2) a medium-sized (85 employees) chemical manufacturer with a strong commitment to training and flexible delivery, regionally located as the Australian subsidiary of a multi-national company; (3) a medium-sized wool scouring plant (140 employees) with strong commitment to training and flexible delivery, regionally located; (4) a large electrical goods manufacturer, metropolitan based with sites throughout Australia, and 540 employees; (5) a medium-sized, regionally based, garment design and distribution enterprise (180 employees). Human services: (6) a major, general purpose, metropolitan hospital (1,950 employees); (7) a major employment service, metropolitan based, but providing service through a large number of geographically distributed client centres (1,200 employees); (8) a specialised health service component of a local government authority (150 employees). Retail services: (9) a large retail chain operating a large number of stores throughout regional and metropolitan Australia; (10) a specialised food retailer operating small franchised outlets throughout Australia. Selection of that enterprise also provided us with access to the very small businesses that formed the franchisees. Hospitality: (11) a small restaurant, regionally based, with around 20 employees.

Flexible delivery was discussed and interpreted with enterprise management, training managers, and focus group participants in the general terms of training delivery methods that are decided upon by the enterprise or the learner involved, such that it is at the enterprise level that the form of the training and its learning objectives are identified (Evans and Smith, 1999). That means that the methods of training to be used are largely under the control of people in the enterprise, so that decisions are made in the enterprise on whether to use such methods as structured or unstructured observation, practice, mentoring, buddy systems, learning resources developed in-house or supplied from elsewhere (Misko, 1994; Sadler-Smith et al., 2000a; Smith, 2002). Choice of instructor is also at the enterprise level, in-house staff may be used, or people from another organisation, including a training provider. There may also be a mixing and matching of these methods to yield training delivery that satisfies people at the enterprise level. Although sending people to a training provider to undertake a packaged program may form part of a flexible delivery program, it would be unlikely that the training program would be achieved only by participation in a packaged program from an outside provider.

Results Flexible delivery was largely operationalised by enterprises through the provision of a range of learning opportunities that included on-the-job observation, practice and mentoring, access to learning resources, and access to external training provision where that was seen as necessary. As a result of interviews and focus groups, the research was able to identify strategies that were considered to be feasible by all enterprises, strategies that were considered to be feasible but with some qualification, and strategies that were not considered to be feasible. These results are summarised in Tables I to VIII and are more fully articulated in Smith et al. (2002).

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Tables I to VIII are organised under the same headings and subheadings employed in Figure 1 in the learner development space and the workplace development space. Within each table the ’’ strategy’’ heading indicates the strategy as developed by Smith (2001), while the heading ’’ feasibility comments’’ summarises the comments made in training

manager interviews and in focus groups. Within each table, strategies are grouped together under headings of: ’’ Considered feasible by all’’ – where the strategy was seen by all enterprises as feasible for implementation; ’’ Qualified feasibility’’ – where the identified strategy was generally seen as

Table I Summary of feasibility of identified strategies for the development of self-directed learning Strategy

Feasibility characteristics

Considered feasible by all Assistance in grounding new learning goals in a context of experience, existing knowledge, and an appreciation of the place of learning in ‘‘becoming’’ an expert worker Assistance to learners to understand their learning within the broader context of the workplace Assistance in the identification and accessing of other experts who can provide demonstration, discussion and guided practice Qualified feasibility Assistance to learners in the development and negotiation of learning goals Assistance to learners in developing and negotiating a learning plan and learning contract, starting with limited contracts prior to developing towards more comprehensive contracts Assistance in the identification of authentic tasks and learning resources through which the learning contract is to be pursued Working with learners to develop a structured approach to completing the learning contract negotiated between the learner and trainer Working with learners to develop monitoring of learning as it proceeds, and the self-evaluation of learning outcomes Provision of regular discussion with learners on their learning contract Discussing achievements as learning proceeds, and assistance to modify learning contracts on the basis of that feedback Provision of opportunity within the production schedule for withdrawal to make use of learning resources Not considered feasible Assistance with skills of structured observation and question-asking

Considered feasible by all Considered feasible by all Considered feasible

Affected by size of enterprise and level of employee Plans considered feasible by all. Contracts affected by level, and generally part of broader performance plan Considered feasible by all, but some level effects Affected by level Feasible generally within a formal system of review Discussion normally through formal review. Affected by level Normally only feasible at higher levels Feasibility normally within specific EA

Not generally seen as feasible

Table II Summary of feasibility of identified strategies for the development of skills and conceptual knowledge Strategy

Feasibility comments

Considered feasible by all Providing opportunity for demonstration, structured practice, guided practice, and observation Provision of learning scaffolding and its planned withdrawal Exposure to a diversity of experiences and problem-solving situations Assistance in the integration of on- and off-the-job learning experiences Provision of access to other workplaces, or to a training provider, to enable learning of a diversity of skills and concepts not available for learning within the workplace

Feasible by all Feasible Generally feasible Feasible Generally feasible

Qualified feasibility Encouragement and facilitation to use a broad range of learning strategies, and a wide use of learning resources, including resources that are verbally or textually presented

Affected by training philosophy

Not considered feasible Provision of opportunity for deliberation, reflection, and articulation of knowledge

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Generally not feasible in a formal way

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Table III Summary of feasibility of identified strategies for the development of skills for structuring knowledge in a community of practice Strategy

Feasibility comments

Considered feasible by all Development among learners of a clear understanding of the workplace ethos, values and policies Encouragement and facilitation to learners to form relationships with trainers, supervisors, peers, and other experts to enable discussion of developing skills and knowledge Qualified feasibility Development among learners of their dual role as learners and as workers Assistance with identification of learning objectives to be pursued through interaction with others, through discussion, demonstration, articulation etc. Provision of regular opportunities within the production schedule for discussion of learning, of skills, and of work Siting of learner workstations in proximity to other more expert workers

Feasible by all Feasible by all

Affected by philosophy of training, and level Affected by level Feasible, but normally focused on discussion about work Organised for production purposes, rather than training

Table IV Summary of feasibility of strategies identified for the development of training policies Strategy

Feasibility comments

Considered feasible by all A statement of the purposes for training within the enterprise, and the value placed on it A statement of the nature of assessment, and by whom those assessments are to be made A statement of recognition that values learners as learners and as workers, and with legitimate need to ask questions, seek guidance and demonstration, and to be provided with opportunities to experiment, trial, and practice A statement that learners are a legitimate part of the enterprise workforce and are expected to participate in the workplace community, and to accept the values and directions of the enterprise A statement of what learners can expect in the provision of learning resources, and to where they may withdraw to use these resources A recognition that self-directed learning requires the regular negotiation of learning goals between the learner and the trainer, and the need to review jointly these goals and discuss progress An expectation that learners will work within the community of practice as a member of a team, but will also progressively develop the skills to take responsibility for their own work and learning A statement that training plans, activities and achievements will be adequately recorded Qualified feasibility A statement of the form of knowledge that the enterprise wishes learners to construct, including whether skilled performance only is to be pursued, or whether skilled performance is expected to be accompanied by conceptual understanding Details of the training structures in the enterprise, and the roles of each of the personnel involved with training, and the role of any external training provider A recognition that diversity of experience is necessary and will be provided through different work experiences in the enterprise, or provided externally by training providers A recognition that time needs to be made available within the production schedule for meetings, discussion, practice etc; and that time is also required for the study of flexible learning materials or attendance at classes

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Feasible by all Feasible Generally feasible

Feasible

Feasible Feasible

Feasible

Feasible

Not generally feasible in a broad and formal way

Feasible, but affected by size and formality Feasible, affected by level, size, and training philosophy Generally infeasible unless in EA

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Table V Summary of feasibility of strategies identified for the development of training structures Strategy

Feasibility comments

Considered feasible by all Identification of training personnel and specific trainers Development of roles for training personnel that include responsibility for: Training plan development Training design and implementation Goal negotiation with learners and monitoring of learning Assessment of skills Enabling access to learning materials, physical resources and more expert personnel Enabling access to people and experiences as required Implementing training within the training and production policies of the enterprise Representing the learning needs of learners to management and other staff Development of documentation for training plans, recording of training activity and achievement Identifiable partnership arrangements with external training providers, and management of that relationship and the training provided Commitment to the professional development of trainers in the flexible delivery of training, and the development of self-directed learning among learners

Affected by size Feasible Feasible Feasible, affected by level Feasible Feasible Feasible Feasible Feasible Feasible Feasible, but partnerships are normally seen more as a client relationship Affected by size and formality

Table VI Preparing training personnel 1 ± feasibility of strategies identified to support development of the learning skills of workplace learners Strategy

Feasibility comments

Considered feasible by all Providing assistance to learners in developing and setting learning goals Assisting in the identification and use of other resources, both human and material Developing an expectation among learners that it is legitimate to ask questions

Feasible, affected by level Feasible Feasible

Qualified feasibility Providing assistance to learners in developing a learning plan and learning contract Understanding of, and preparedness to negotiate learning contracts and outcomes with learners Provision of assistance to learners in self-assessment of existing knowledge and skills Provision to learners of positive feedback on self-directed learning skill development Providing encouragement for reflection through discussion with both the trainer and with fellow workers Assistance in self-evaluation of learning progress and outcomes Provision of regular monitoring of the learning contract with learners, and negotiation of changes Understanding the need to develop an equality with the learner in the learning partnership Making use of the learning contract as the basis for communication between the learner and trainer on matters to do with learner learning An understanding of learning preferences and learning strategies

feasible among enterprises, but there were qualifiers put around its feasibility; ’’ Not considered feasible’’ – where all enterprises rejected the strategy as feasible for implementation. Learner development space See Tables I-III. Workplace development space See Tables IV-VIII.

Plan feasible by all; contract affected by level Affected by level Limited feasibility Limited feasibility Limited feasibility Limited feasibility Feasible, affected by level Limited feasibility Affected by level Limited feasibility

Discussion Learner development strategies With respect to strategies aimed at developing self-directed learners, strategies considered feasible related to locating the learning within existing learner knowledge, and the contextualisation of that learning in the broader enterprise. Additionally, enterprises considered it feasible to ensure that learners had access to other expert workers who could

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Table VII Preparing training personnel 2 ± feasibility of strategies identified to support the development of skills and conceptual knowledge among learners Strategy

Feasibility comments

Considered feasible by all Ability to identify systematically authentic tasks available on-the-job to support learning Understanding of the processes required to provide for a diversity of problem-solving and learning experiences on-the-job Ability to identify learning tasks that cannot be undertaken at the workplace due to enterprise scope of work, and a process for negotiating for these learning tasks to be undertaken through a training provider, or through another enterprise Understanding of the processes for designing and supporting scaffolding and fading Capacity to provide demonstration and practice opportunities, and to facilitate trialling and experimentation Skills required to provide feedback as learning progresses, and at the conclusion of a learning contract Commitment to provide an organised repository of learning resources, and methods to encourage use of those resources Commitment to a system of recording and recognising skill acquisition and development

Feasible Feasible Feasible

Feasible Feasible Ongoing feasibility in the absence of contracts Feasible Feasible

Table VIII Preparing training personnel 3 ± feasibility of strategies identified to support the development among learners of participation in a community of practice Strategy

Feasibility comments

Considered feasible by all An understanding of workplace training policies that emphasise the value of training, the value of learners, and the need for shared experience An understanding of the respective roles of trainers and learners, as well as the contributions other workplace personnel can make through the willing sharing of their knowledge and experience A recognition and valuing of dual roles of learners as learners, and learners as workers Commitment to the provision of a spiral of responsibility that enables learners to move from peripheral to central participation as skills and knowledge increase Qualified feasibility An understanding of the need to ‘‘champion’’ the needs of learners learning in the workplace

provide learning experiences through demonstration, discussion and guided practice. Enterprises were much more qualified in their views on the feasibility of those strategies which actually develop the learning strategies of learners in the workplace. Largely, views of the feasibility of learner involvement in the setting of learning directions were associated with a feeling that there is simply not time to do this, coupled with the view that many supervisors were simply not well-equipped with the knowledge to do it. However, there was a view that the development of learning goals and contracts was feasible at higher levels in enterprises, typically among professional and managerial staff. Also more likely to be considered feasible at these higher levels were regular

Feasible Feasible

Feasible Feasible

Limited feasibility

discussions on progress towards expected learning outcomes, the development of a structured pathway to achieve the outcomes, and adjustment to expected learning on the basis of experience as it progressed. These features of learning management were generally considered feasible, and even desirable, within a performance review process, where new learning became a part of the expectations on an employee over a period of time. There was also a view that it was feasible to withdraw higher level workers from the production process, and in some enterprises, even expected. At lower levels of employee this form of withdrawal was largely seen as feasible where it formed part of an enterprise agreement. In these respects, the observations of Whittaker (1995) and Evans (2001), that there is a clear tension between

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the learning needs of enterprises and their production imperatives, are largely borne out in the current research. Generally considered infeasible was the provision of assistance to employees in developing the skills of structured observation and question-asking. These skills are important for learners to develop but learners were generally expected to either already have them, or to develop them for themselves. The notion that these skills are already in place is at odds with research by Smith (2000b) and Warner et al. (1998), where the evidence was that these skills were not typically well developed in vocational learners. The strategies identified to support the development of skills and conceptual knowledge through a range of learning materials and strategies were more commonly accepted as feasible without qualification. All workplaces saw as feasible, and desirable, the various strategies associated with the provision of opportunities for engagement in demonstrations and practice, provision of a diversity of relevant experience, provision of scaffolding and its gradual withdrawal as skills developed, and the integration of on- and off-the-job learning. Providing these experiences in a variety of ways to support individual differences in learning styles through provision of a variety of learning materials and experiences was generally accepted as feasible, although there was clear evidence that these activities needed to be undertaken within the enterprise production schedule (Calder and McCollum, 1998; Smith, 2000b). The strategies identified for the development of skills in a community of practice were considered feasible by all where they involved interaction between learners and other workers, trainers and supervisors. Those are the usual forms of worker interaction in any workplace and require no particular effort on the part of enterprises. However, beyond that, enterprises saw as very feasible the encouragement of those relationships in a learning context to enable the development of required skills and knowledge. Although research by Brooker and Butler (1997), Harris et al. (1998) and Unwin and Wellington (1995) showed that the involvement of workers in communities of practice was largely unstructured and unplanned, it appears that among the enterprises in our sample there is an

acceptance that strategies can be put in place to achieve this in a more systematic way. Where the invocation of a community of practice involved assistance with the development by learners of their own learning objectives, and the pursuit of those objectives through organised discussion and articulation there was only a qualified view of feasibility. Largely, the qualification involved a view that these forms of ’’ time out’’ (Calder and McCollum, 1998) discussions were feasible only in a context of a discussion about production tasks, rather than in a context of discussions about knowledge acquisition. Workplace development strategies Strategies that were seen by all to be feasible were those associated with the development and articulation of training policies that indicated the value placed on training by the enterprise; the forms of training that could be expected; details of assessment policies; a recognition of dialogue between learners and trainers on learning goals and their achievement; an expectation that learning would make use of the community of practice available in the enterprise; and a statement that training plans, activities and achievements would be recorded. There was a qualified view of the feasibility of providing statements of the sorts of knowledge to be pursued (e.g. skills and/or conceptual) and time availability within the production schedule for non-formal or flexible learning. Whether or not enterprises considered as feasible the details of training structures was strongly related to size and formality, with some larger enterprises seeing the provision of considerable detail as feasible and desirable, and small enterprises tending to have a more informal set of arrangements. The strategies identified for the development of training structures were largely seen as feasible. Whilst more specific strategies for the role development of training personnel were also seen as feasible by all, different interpretations need to be placed on that finding. First, in larger enterprises with an identifiable training structure and personnel accountable for training, there was acceptance that skill development for training plan development, implementation, assessment, learning resource and personnel access, and implementation of training policy were feasible. There was also a view that the development of trainers’ roles to include

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championing of trainers to management staff and other workers was feasible and desirable, in a spirit of ensuring a value was placed on training and on learners. Likewise, the identification of external training possibilities and training partnerships were also seen as feasible strategies. Consistent, though, with the discussion of the preparation of learners, only limited feasibility was identified among those strategies that provide for the development among trainers of the skills required to assist learners to become more self-directed. Finally, the development of effective training personnel was generally regarded as feasible and desirable. However, there was not a strong view that it was necessary or feasible to provide trainers who were adept at developing workers’ ability to learn (learning to learn skills) or who facilitated the development of self-directed learners. That finding is at odds with other work that suggests that the skills of learning, and knowing how to learn, are crucial for effective workplace learning (Evans, 2000), particularly as it is provided through situated and flexible learning paradigms. That need for understanding how to learn and to develop skills of self-directed learning for effective flexible learning has been noted by several writers (Boote, 1998; Evans, 2000; Evans and Smith, 1999).

Conclusion In summary, our results show that a majority of the strategies identified are feasible for implementation in enterprises, with others being supported in a qualified way, and a small number being perceived as largely infeasible. When strategies identified as feasible are applied to the framework depicted in Figure 1 it is apparent that there is a sufficient number of them in the strategy space, both for learner and for workplace preparation, to enable enterprises to select from a wide range of possibilities to enhance experience with flexible delivery. Factors that were shown to be related to the feasibility of given strategies in enterprises related to the availability of time, perceived skills of supervisors, and the forms of learning network acknowledged as present and encouraged. Variations also related to size, geographic distribution, and the level of

formality in the enterprise structure, procedures, and expected training outcomes. Beyond these enterprise characteristics such as size and geographic distribution, there are three issues that appear to influence perceptions of the feasibility of implementing various strategies to improve flexible delivery in the workplace. First, the enterprise’s notion of the place of training as a vehicle for organisational development. Enterprises viewing training as an essential element of organisational development generally perceived more strategies as feasible than did enterprises that saw training as more peripheral. Second, where training formed part of an enterprise agreement, more strategies appeared to be seen as feasible. Third, hazardous work and safety issues had some impact on how feasible some strategies were viewed. Where the work of the enterprise involved hazardous processes there was evidence of a preference for strategies that formed a vertical learning network with closely prescribed worker learning outcomes (as competencies), learning activities, assessment processes and standards.

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Developing preparedness for flexible delivery of ...

structured or unstructured observation, practice ... Working with learners to develop a structured approach to completing the learning contract negotiated ...

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