CURRENTS. A Journal of Young English Philology Thought and Review, vol.1, no.1/2015 Ed. by E. Bodal, A. Jaskólska, N. Strehlau & M. Włudzik, www.currents.umk.pl ISSN 2449-8769 || All texts licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 3.0

Katarzyna Piotrowska Nicolaus Copernicus University

NATIVE AMERICAN WOMEN PROTAGONISTS “ON THE JOURNEY TO MOTHERHOOD” A CASE STUDY Keywords: motherhood, Native American literature, Naomi Wolf

The present article is a case study of motherhood and pregnancy1 depicted in Misconceptions: Truth, Lies, and the Unexpected on the Journey to Motherhood by a feminist writer—Naomi Wolf and in the novels by three Native American writers from the United States of America: Ella Cara Deloria’s Waterlily, Elizabeth Cook-Lynn’s Aurelia: Crow Creek Trilogy and Paula Gunn Allen’s The Woman Who Owned The Shadows. In the article, the personal account of Wolf’s pregnancy and motherhood is juxtaposed with the ones described in the novels of the Indigenous writers. Despite the fact that the writers differ from Wolf with regard

to

their

cultural

background,

there

are

certain

thematic

correspondences in the novels of Deloria (Yankton-Nakota), Cook-Lynn (Dakota-Crow Creek Sioux), Allen (Laguna Pueblo / Métis) and Wolf’s work. The Native American authors are concerned with motifs of pregnancy and motherhood, which is the central aspect in Wolf’s book. The choice of the above-mentioned authors alongside with Wolf is also dictated by the fact that writing is but one sphere of their creative activities; Wolf is a third–wave feminist and spokesperson for women’s rights, Deloria was an anthropologist and linguist, Allen—a scholar, literary critic and activist and Cook-Lynn is an academic and editor. Therefore, the focus of the article is the reflection on the degree of correspondences between Wolf’s personal experiences and the depiction of pregnancy and motherhood in the novels by the Native American writers mentioned above.

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In her book Misconceptions: Truth, Lies, and the Unexpected on the Journey to Motherhood Naomi Wolf outlines the process of becoming a mother: “[w]hen you have a new baby, what you get is a whole world filled with gifts but also with losses. While the gifts new mothers receive are often well documented,” she observes, “the losses are often hidden” (7). The very title refers to disinformation about the actual birth process, which the mother-to-be might encounter: “I did not know […] that we were entering a kind of tunnel of experience dictated in large measure by money and institutional politics that presented itself as the medically objective best-practices of prenatal and childbirth care” (21). According to the OB/GYN doctors that Wolf mentions, women may only accept this state of affairs and are excluded from decisionmaking processes when in the delivery room (19). More importantly, Wolf shares her experience of marital problems and the shift of balance in the relationship which she, like many new mothers, endures when at home with her newborn: “When the negotiation had been simply between two individuals, the women had been able to dare to insist on equality. But with the baby’s arrival […] The woman was no longer willing to take risks that involved the baby” (227). Wolf admits that her life, at that time, seemed far from ideal. She mentions her inconvenience caused by being “chained to the couch” suffering from sleep deficit, constantly nursing the infant (208–209) as the common experiences of herself and her friends who have recently given birth. She also touches upon delicate and debatable issues—the problems and, more crucially, the causes of postpartum depression (207–233) and argues that “a mother is not born when a baby is born; a mother is forged, made” (291), which requires both time and effort. In addition, she notices that her earlier views about maternity and caretaking were in fact far from reality: When I first saw the population of moms and caregivers at this indoor playground, I was taken aback. In my naiveté, growing up in a feminist household, I had thought that such spaces would be sexually integrated—even racially integrated—by the time I became a mother. But the scene before us was as stratified by gender and color as any place in America could be. The kids were almost all white. […] The 160

CURRENTS. A Journal of Young English Philology Thought and Review women who cared for the white children were brown and black caregivers and white mothers. (253)

All that allows for the demythologisation of pregnancy and motherhood. However, do Deloria, Allen and Cook-Lynn present similar views on the abovementioned

issues?

Are

there

correspondences

with

regard

to

the

misinformation and problems experienced and depicted by Wolf and the events described in the novels? This article aims to juxtapose the manner of presentation of pregnancy and motherhood in the works by the abovementioned Native American writers with the one present in the book by Naomi Wolf. Waterlily A Dakota writer and anthropologist, Ella Cara Deloria wrote her novel Waterlily in 1944. Deloria sets her book in the beginning of the nineteenth century, making its main concern the life of a Native American tribe – the Dakotas. Gary Lee Sligh explains that because the period of 1940s “was a heyday of Western movie […]. Indian culture was devalued and mocked […] Deloria’s depiction of Indian loving mothers and brave, devoted warriors would have met with much derision” (91). Consequently, the manuscript had to wait over forty years and was eventually published after Deloria’s death. The story is presented from a female perspective, because Deloria’s informants were mainly women. Susan Gardner, the author of “Though it Broke My Heart to Cut Some Bits I Fancied: Ella Deloria’s Original Design for Waterlily,” argues that Waterlily is the only Native American novel that provides information about female experiences before the reservations were established (670). Although, according to Gardner, men also provided valuable information, they did not acquiesce to discuss some matters “out of decorum” and at times they possessed insufficient knowledge to do so (684). Therefore, assuming a woman’s perspective seems understandable, since Waterlily “is a novel written by a Native woman about Native women” (Cotera 53).

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The novel revolves around the lives of a mother and a daughter. The action begins with Blue Bird about to give birth to Waterlily. She decides to deliver in a secluded place near the forest. During labour Blue Bird remembers her grandmother’s words: “No woman cries out like a baby; people ridicule that. If one is old enough to bear a child, one is old enough to endure in silence” (5). The grandmother’s advice echoes the statement uttered by a waitress in Wolf’s book: “When I had my first, just beforehand, my mother sat me down.… Daughter, she said, ‘women don’t cry’” (74). The avoidance of displaying strong emotions and feelings among the Dakotas was a matter of social customs. The book abounds in both positive and negative events from Blue Bird and Waterlily’s lives; thus, the protagonists appear more down-to-earth and are easier to identify with for readers. The novel offers insight into the protagonist’s relationship with her mother and allows to discern its significance for both women as the bond between them grows. Although at first the depiction of this relationship, motherhood and pregnancy may seem overly idealised, when considering the fact that Deloria meant her novel to be a vehicle to preserve tribal traditions and educate future generations about Dakota culture, such portrayal of her characters seems justified. As is the case in Misconceptions, children play a significant role in the family life. However, while Wolf mentions that she “became more and more her the servant of [her] developing child” (77) presenting it in a negative light, Deloria relates that “it was the custom to serve children first and then any adults present” (33), perceiving attention devoted to children as natural and necessary. Obviously, Wolf does not posit that children are insignificant. She maintains that with child-bearing women are forced to withdraw from their otherwise blooming social life. Not infrequently do they decide to leave their jobs at the peak of their careers (261). Deloria creates a different image: “A lapful of babies—what more should a woman want?” (82). These words uttered by Blue Bird stand in opposition to Wolf’s. Deloria’s depiction of children as giving women’s lives exclusive significance may appear naive. As Cotera argues, 162

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“while Deloria’s figuration of a politics of tribal survival was clearly woman centered, it was not, in the common sense, ‘feminist’” (62). Hence, despite correspondences between Waterlily and Misconceptions with regard to pregnancy and motherhood, there are significant differences. The Woman Who Owned Shadows The motifs of pregnancy and motherhood are also recurrent in the novel by Paula Gunn Allen. Published in 1994, The Woman Who Owned Shadows centers around Ephanie, the protagonist of the novel. The woman is a complex character. She has been betrayed and abandoned by her husband. Although initially she seeks professional help, the real healing awaits her in the bosom of tradition. Soon she meets Thomas, a Japanese American, who, having been deeply hurt in his early childhood, feels the burden of the trauma in his mature life. Hoping to recreate her identity through the relationship with Thomas, Ephanie disregards the fact that the man takes interest mainly in her body: “[H]e undressed her like a doll, and took her to bed…. he fucked her like a doll, and lay beside her and went to sleep” (81). To the man, Ephanie is but a sexual object. Nevertheless, she marries Thomas, becomes pregnant and decides to leave for Oregon to spend time on her own (100). Thomas joins Ephanie just before the end of the ninth month. When still expecting, Ephanie feels she carries twins, but her doctor is truly surprised when two children are actually born (101). In addition, Ephanie has little say in the delivery room. The hospital staff do not even hand the children to Ephanie. “They did not let her hold him [Tommy] or Tsali. They kept her wrists tied” (101). Ephanie is given an injection against her will, because it is the doctor’s order (105). Such instances of disinformation and disregard prevail in the novel. The events described above appear similar to what Wolf states about her role in the delivery room: “In my delivery, I was an adjunct; I had virtually no role. There was nothing I could do to contribute to the birthing process if I wanted to, which I badly did” (138). What is more, doctors do not always ask 163

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their patients’ permission before performing medical operations. Hence, a patient may feel insignificant and disregarded2. Ephanie’s journey through motherhood is entwined with pain because of the death of Tommy. It may be this event that urges Ephanie to divorce Thomas and leave all that is connected with him behind. Ephanie realises that she does not need anyone to help her regain unity. It causes the woman to metaphorically change herself into the mythic spider woman, who weaves her life into wholeness. She requires her past, present and the two traditions she is rooted in, the Indian and the Mexican, to understand and regain her identity (Ruppert 81), which allows the novel’s closure to leave the readers with a ray of hope. The empowering role of motherhood prevails also in Misconceptions. In the chapter “A Mother’s Manifesto” Wolf argues that motherhood may finally be seen as the most significant duty, but this requires “the transformation […] of the heart” (287). Aurelia: Crow Creek Trilogy Similarly to the works of Deloria and Allen, Elizabeth Cook Lynn’s Aurelia: Crow Creek Trilogy, published in 1999, features a strong and complex Native American woman protagonist. Regardless of the fact that John Tatekeya and his trial are the main concern of the first novel in the trilogy, Aurelia is the second most developed protagonist in From the River’s Edge. It is also Aurelia who becomes the main focus of Circle of Dancers and In the Presence of River. In the two above-mentioned novels, readers may learn more of Aurelia’s past and the development of her relationship with another man, Jason. The relationship between Aurelia and Jason has never been easy. Even because of “her slightly expanded waistline” she is not willing to marry Jason (Cook-Lynn 165). “Why are you doing this?” she asks Jason, “You know I don’t want to get married” (222). Aurelia seems stubborn, because she does not wish to be restrained by anything or anyone. To her mind, pregnancy does not necessitate marriage, which appears simultaneously crucial and modern. She 164

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does not need a man by her side to protect her and the child. When the emotional relationship seems over, Aurelia realises that she cannot and does not want to stay with Jason (Cook-Lynn 337). She sets an example for other women, tiring themselves in vicious circles of their, at times, mistaken marriages and relationships out of pure attachment. In the case of Aurelia, no details concerning her labour are provided. She may, however, be described as independent and unwilling to comply with the expectations of her family and local community in which she functions. In that respect, Aurelia appears to represent a type of a woman which seems not to exist in Wolf’s book. She is not going to say, as do the women mentioned by Wolf: “I decided it’s just not worth a fight” (261) when referring to a serious misunderstanding between women and their partners. Although initially she stays with Jason for the sake of their child, she is strong and wise enough to take the baby and leave when the true commitment ends. She will not accept falling into stereotypical patriarchal marriage, as she feels the relationship with Jason would lead to. In this aspect she is a very thoughtful mother, able to take risks instead of pretending she is leading a fulfilling life, because she views it as harmful for the child. Conclusion None of the works discussed presents so detailed a description of labour as the one in the book by Naomi Wolf (135–143). With respect to the loss of equality and balance in the relationship only Cook-Lynn presents the birth of a child as an irrevocable, and not always positive change, as is the case in Aurelia: Crow Creek Trilogy. However, these instances are not as openly presented as in Misconceptions, where Wolf notes: “The baby’s arrival acted as a crack, then a fissure, then an earthquake, that wrenched open the patina of egalitarianism in the marriages of virtually every couple I knew” (226). In contrast, there is no reference to the loss of equality and balance in the relationship due to the above-mentioned event in the book by Deloria. In addition, none of the 165

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protagonists are elated because of the pregnancy, which is itself frequently a surprise. Such is also the case with Wolf, as she shares her personal experience (16). Native American protagonists presented by Allen and Cook-Lynn are depicted as real human beings who are allowed to err and who are not expected to consider motherhood as their lives’ ultimate aim. Although Deloria’s depiction of pregnancy may appear to be idealised, it is not if the book is read in its proper context: Waterlily itself might fruitfully be read as a pedagogical and political project that contributes to tribal revitalization by attempting to “teach” a generation of Dakota—suffering from the effects of half a century of government policies designed to destroy their traditional modes of social organization—about the importance of the kinship system and its relationship to the codes of conduct governing “proper” Dakota behaviour. (Cotera 55)

Thus, what connects the Native American authors discussed in this article is that they present women as, Wolf might state, “being forged” into mothers; mothers who are not infallible, who do not always want to spend time with their children, who find pregnancy as a rather difficult time, and see it as a change in their lives and their personalities. What, as Allen maintains, seems important is that as a result of focusing on women protagonists in the above-mentioned novels: “The idea of Indian in the contemporary public mind will shift from warrior/brave/hunter/chief to grandmother/mother/Peacemaker/farmer” (“Stealing the Thunder” 265). Therefore, Deloria’s, Allen’s and Cook-Lynn’s depictions seem to unite in an attempt to voice the truth about women’s lives as mothers and in that aspect they come together with Naomi Wolf, regardless of the significant differences in their cultural backgrounds, in the process of demythologising pregnancy and motherhood, although this “journey” is still far from complete. Endnotes 1. These motifs have been among primary feminist issues at least since 1986 when Adrienne Rich’s Of Woman Born: Motherhood As Experience and Institution was published. 166

CURRENTS. A Journal of Young English Philology Thought and Review 2. During the 1960s and the 1970s at least 25% of Native American women in the United States were sterilised against their will and often without their knowledge (Cf. Lawrence 410). Such instances of abuse are not directly mentioned in the novels, but in The Woman Who Owned The Shadows Ephany does not trust medical personnel, which may be caused by sterilisation abuses she could be aware of. References Allen, P.G. 1994 [1983]. The Woman Who Owned the Shadows. San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books. Allen, P.G. 1992 [1986]. “Stealing the Thunder: Future Visions for American Indian Women, Tribes, and Literary Studies,” in: P.G. Allen (Ed.), 262–268. Allen, P.G. (Ed.) 1992 [1986]. The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions, New York: Beacon Press. Cook-Lynn, E. 2002 [1999]. From the River’s Edge. Aurelia: Crow Creek Trilogy. Colorado: Colorado University Press. Cotera, M.E. 2004. “All My Relatives Are Noble: Recovering the Feminine in Ella Cara Deloria’s Waterlily,” American Indian Quarterly, 28.1/2, 52–72. Deloria, E.C. Waterlily. 1996 [1988]. New York: Nebraska University Press. Gardner, S. 2003. “Though it Broke My Heart to Cut Some Bits I Fancied: Ella Deloria’s Original Design for Waterlily.” American Indian Quarterly 27.3/4, 667–696. Lawrence, J. 2000. “The Indian Health Service and the Sterilization of Native American Women.” American Indian Quarterly, 24:3, 400–419. Porter, J., & K.M. Roemer (Eds.) 2005. The Cambridge Companion to Native American Literarure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rich, A. 1986. Of Woman Born: Motherhood As Experience and Institution. New York, London: W. W. Norton & Company. Ruppert, J. “Fiction: 1968 to Present,” in: J Porter & K. M. Roemer (Eds.), 173–188. Sligh, G.L. 2006. A Study of Native American Women Novelists: Sophia Alice Callahan, Mourning Dove and Ella Cara Deloria. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. Wolf, N. 2003. Misconceptions: Truth, Lies, and the Unexpected on the Journey to Motherhood. New York: Anchor Books. Abstract The article aims to discuss the notions of motherhood and pregnancy in the novels by Native American women writers from the United States of America: Waterlily by Ella Cara Deloria, The Woman Who Owned Shadows by Paula Gunn Allen, Aurelia: Crow Creek Trilogy by Elizabeth Cook-Lynn and juxtapose them with Misconceptions: Truth, Lies, and the Unexpected on the Journey to Motherhood by a feminist writer Naomi Wolf. The conclusion calls attention to similarities and differences with regard to pregnancy and motherhood in the above-mentioned books and attempts to answer whether the voices of Indigenous women unite with the voice of Wolf.

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