Contour Graph Based Human Tracking and Action Sequence Recognition Shiming Xiang ∗ , Feiping Nie, Yangqiu Song, Changshui Zhang Tsinghua National Laboratory for Information Science and technology (TNList), Department of Automation, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P.R. China

Abstract This paper introduces a new framework for human contour tracking and action sequence recognition. Given a gallery of labeled human contour sequences, we define each contour as a “word” and encode all of them into a contour dictionary. This dictionary will be used to translate the video. To this end, a contour graph is constructed by connecting all the neighboring contours. Then, the motion in a video is viewed as an instance of random walks on this graph. As a result, we can avoid explicitly parameterizing the contour curves and modeling the dynamical system for contour updating. In such a work setting, there are only a few state variables to be estimated when using Sequence Monte Carlo (SMC) approach to realize the random walks. In addition, the walks on the graph also perform sequence comparisons implicitly with those in the predefined gallery, from which statistics about class label is evaluated for action recognition. Experiments on diving tracking and recognition illustrate the validity of our method. Key words: Contour Tracking, Sequence Recognition, Sequence Monte Carlo Estimation, Contour Graph, Diving Action

1

Introduction

The recent years have seen a surge of interest in video-based human tracking and action sequence recognition. In spite of many thoughtful attempts [1– 5], human tracking and action sequence recognition are still main challenging problems in computer vision and pattern recognition. Actually, there exist ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86-10-627-96-872; Fax: +86-10-627-86-911. Email address: [email protected] (Shiming Xiang).

Preprint submitted to Elsevier

28 November 2008

many uncertainties caused by noises, shadows, occlusions and unknown motions. Besides, the complexity significantly increases when tracking and recognizing human action due to the non-rigidity of human body.

The difficulties caused by the non-rigidity of human body lie in how to efficiently describe the deformable human contour and how to formulate the updating equation for contour evolution over time.

To avoid parameterizing the contour curves and modeling the dynamics of contour updating, this paper introduces a new framework for human contour tracking and action recognition. The basic idea is to use the predefined contours to facilitate the performance of contour tracking and action recognition. Given a gallery of contour sequences of actions, we define each contour as a “word” and encode all of them into a contour dictionary. This dictionary will be used to translate the video to be recognized. To explore and exploit the contour information in this dictionary, one graph is constructed via k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) approach. In this way, we cast a “sentence” of “words” as an instance of random walks on this graph, and sequence Monte Carlo (SMC) method [6,7] is used to estimate it from the video.

Our framework has three main advantages: (1) Based on the contour dictionary, we can avoid parameterizing the complex human contours; (2) Through random walks on the graph, we can avoid formulating the dynamics of contour updating; (3) The random walks on the graph also perform indirectly sequence comparisons with those in the predefined gallery, from which statistics can be computed for action recognition.

As an example of applications, this paper will demonstrate the task of diving action tracking and recognition. Diving is a highly complex motion. According to the international diving rules, the divers should finish all the action details in the air in limited time. The motion is very fast, and the distortion of the body is usually very large. In addition, the human contour may change drastically due to the occlusions from the arms [8]. The complexity due to these factors will be significantly reduced in our framework.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we briefly introduce the related work. Section 3 outlines our approach. Details and related issues are described in Section 4, 5, and 6. Section 7 reports the experimental results, followed the conclusions in Section 8. 2

P (X t | X t-1 ) X t-1

Xt

X t+1

Zt

Z t+1

P (Z t | X t) Z t-1

Fig. 1. The dynamic Bayesian network used in the Condensation algorithm [6].

2 2.1

Related Work SMC Estimation

One typical approach to SMC estimation [7] for visual tracking is the Condensation (Conditional Density Propagation) algorithm [6]. Here we denote the target state at time t by xt , and all the observed image measurements by Z1:t = {z1 , · · · , zt }. The task of visual tracking is to estimate the time-varying posterior density p(xt |Z1:t ) and infer the state xt at time t. To this end, the Condensation algorithm first computes a prior density p(xt |Z1:t−1 ) using the dynamic updating model p(xt |xt−1 ) and the density p(xt−1 |Z1:t−1 ) estimated at t − 1. Given the new observation measurement p(zt |xt ), a posteriori density p(xt |Z1:t ) is evaluated. Thus, the tracking process can be viewed as a density propagation from p(xt−1 |Z1:t−1 ) to p(xt |Z1:t ), governed by p(xt |xt−1 ) and p(zt |xt ) [4,9]. This process can be formulated as follows: Z

p(xt |Z1:t ) ∝ p(zt |xt )

p(xt |xt−1 )p(xt−1 |Z1:t−1 )dxt−1

(1)

The above dynamic process can be described graphically by a dynamic Bayesian network as shown in Fig. 1. Since it is difficult to obtain an analytical solution to Eq. (1), a factor sampling method is used to estimate p(xt |Z1:t ) [6]. The main advantage of SMC estimation is its adaptability to a wide range of challenging applications. However, it requires a large number of samples to obtain an accurate tracking, especially when the dimensionality of the state space is high. In the absence of prior knowledge about target motion, it is also difficult to model the dynamics p(xt |xt−1 ) for state updating. 2.2

Contour Tracking

A SMC framework for contour tracking has three aspects: contour, dynamics model and observation model. Contour representation is crucial since evaluations of dynamics and observation models highly depend on it. 3

Parameterized approaches are commonly used to represent contour curves [6,10]. The higher the degree of freedoms of the contour curve is, the higher the dimensionality of sate space is, and thus more samples should be employed in density propagation. Kang et al. [10] used B-spline curves to represent the body contour. In their approach, spline model is learned from the training data. To perform the visual tracking in a low-dimensional state space, Wang et al. introduced an intrinsic representation by using non-linear dimensionality reduction method [11]. There a large number of samples are needed to train the model. A straightforward way to describe visual object is to use some exemplars. In previous work, exemplars are employed in different forms, such as the templates [12–15], shapes in 2D and 3D space [16], and so on. Generally, these methods need lots of exemplars to train the models. Exemplars used in this paper are human contours, which will be constructed as a graph through which the contour tracking is guided. For dynamic models, linear models are often used to govern the density propagation [6]. Later, mixture models are developed via learning approaches [17–19]. Tracking can then be implemented by switching among different models. In contrast, the dynamics in this paper is obtained via the random walks on the contour graph. The evaluation of observation model is highly connected to image measurement [6,20,21]. Chen et al. used joint probability data association filter to incorporate multiple cues by expanding image observation [22]. Shen et al. utilized color and edge feature to measure the observation data [23]. Wu et al. proposed a generative model approach to contour tracking, where the tracker can automatically switch among different observation models [9].

2.3 Sequence Recognition

Currently, many works have been done on video-based sequence recognition, such as video-based gait recognition [5,24–27], sports motion analysis [28–30], and action recognition [1–4]. The core task in sequence recognition is to perform sequence comparisons based on the sequences of features, key frames, key poses, and so on [5,31,32]. Commonly-used approaches to sequence comparison include dynamic time warping [33], HMM-based matching [2,24], the normalized relative scores [26], time series analysis [5], etc.. However, the related systems of action recognition are developed for the specified actions and may not be generalized for other kinds of motions. 4

lt, vt

lt+1 , v t+1

x t-1 , yt-1 , st-1 , Ct-1

xt, y t, s t, Ct

xt+ 1, yt+ 1 , s t+ 1, Ct+ 1

Zt-1

Zt

Zt+1

lt-1 , vt-1

Fig. 2. The dynamic Bayesian network for inferring the state parameters.

3

Overview of Our Approach

Let G be a gallery of L contour sequences, each of which is a representative of an action class. Suppose the i-th sequence contains Li contours. Now we P have a contour dictionary Λ, which includes i Li contours. It is reasonable to use this dictionary to translate the video to be recognized. Let ct be the human contour at time t. We limit it to be selected from Λ when performing contour tracking. Thus, the video with T frames will be translated into a “sentence”. We denote it by S = c0 c1 · · · cT . To this end, a graph G(Λ, E) is first constructed on this dictionary, in which each contour is treated as a node and each edge connects two neighbors. Then sentence S can be viewed as a random walk on this graph. We use l and v to index the v-th contour of the l-th sequence in G. By introducing the location (xt , yt ) and size st of ct , contour tracking will be performed only in a five-dimensional state space, namely xt = (xt , yt , st , lt , vt )T . Fig. 2 shows the dynamic Bayesian network used to infer such xt . Finally, sequence comparison is performed between the tracked contour sequence and those in G. The statistics about lt is also fused into the evaluation since it connects to the class label. For convenience, Table 1 lists the important notations used in this paper.

4

Contour Graph

4.1 Basic Contour Graph As mentioned in the previous Sections, we try to avoid estimating p(ct |ct−1 ) in a continuously state parameter space. We limit ct to be selected from Λ. This process can be controlled by the transition probability P (lt , vt |lt−1 , vt−1 ) 5

G

the predefined gallery of contour sequences

L

the class number of actions in G

Li

the number of contours in i-th sequence in G

Λ

the contour dictionary generated from G

(l, v)

the 2-tuple contour index in Λ

(x, y)

the position of the contour c(l, v)

s

the scale size of c(l, v)

Nc(l,v)

the neighborhood of contour c(l, v)

k

the k-nearest parameter

xt

the target state vector

(n) xt (n) wt

the n-th sample at time t

N

the number of samples

zt

the observation data at time t

(n)

the weight (likelihood) of xt

Table 1 Important notations.

defined in Λ. Due to motion correlation, the transition probability can be evaluated only between neighbors. Thus it is necessary for each contour to get its k nearest neighbors. Generally, shape features (for example, the wavelet moments [34]) and similarity ranking can be used to achieve this goal. Here we introduce a more practical way to determine the k neighbors. This is based on the observation that the real neighbors of ct−1 may not be those obtained through similarity ranking, but those belonging to the same action class of ct−1 . For contour c(l, v), we divide its k neighbors into two subsets, namely, Nc(l,v) = NA ∪ NB . Here, NA is an intra-subset, which includes k1 neighbors coming from the same sequence, and can be enumerated as follows: NA = {c(l, v − k 0 ), · · · , c(l, v), · · · , c(l, v + k 0 )} These contours are illustrated with “+” in Fig. 3. NB is an inter-subset, which includes k2 (= k −k1 ) neighbors not belonging to the class of c(l, v). They can be retrieved out from Λ. The reason we still 6

( lt , v t ) +

+

+

+

+

( l t-1 , v t-1 )

Fig. 3. The directed graphical model G(Λ, E). Each edge in E connects a pair of neighbors. Each row connected by dashed lines indicates a gallery sequence in G. For clarity, only (lt−1 , vt−1 ) and its k neighbors (shadowed notes) are connected for demonstration.

maintain this subset is that through it a random walk can jump from one class to another. This will benefit the evolution of the walks during tracking. To be simplified, P (lt , vt |lt−1 , vt−1 ) is now evaluated with equal probability: P (lt , vt |lt−1 , vt−1 ) =

  

1 k

,

if (lt , vt ) ∈ I(lt−1 , vt−1 )

 0 ,

otherwise

(2)

where I(lt−1 , vt−1 ) is the 2-tuple index set of Nc(l−1,v−1) : I(lt−1 , vt−1 ) = {(l, v)|c(l, v) ∈ Nc(lt−1 ,vt−1 ) }

(3)

The above probability transition can be interpreted as a graph G(Λ, E), which is constructed on Λ via k-NN approach (Fig. 3). Through random walk on this graph, the tracker obtains the dynamics for performing contour prediction. As a result, we can avoid formulating the updating equation. 4.2

Contour Generation

Contours in Λ stipulate the effectiveness and efficiency of tracking and recognition. If there exists a big gap where a real contour in a video may not be fitted to anyone of the dictionary, one can only get low likelihood values. In this case, the tracker may lose the object. To fill in the gaps, we use the results of shape matching [35,36] to generate in-between contours. Belief propagation is used to match contour points [35]. In this process, we first construct a graph on which matching message is transferred. This graph will be defined on the source contour to be matched, and will take each of its discretized edge points as a note. Each note will connect its two nearest edge points. Two kinds of message will be transferred on this graph. One is the cost of assigning two neighboring edge points on the source contour to two edge points on the target contour. This cost will penalize two common 7

cases in contour matching. That is, large jumps and cross correspondences will be explicitly penalized to guarantee the continuity of the matched edge points [35]. The other is the data cost which penalizes incorrect matches. We hope that the edge points with similar features should be matched together. Actually, this data cost is related to the similarity between edge points. In a negative log-probability framework, alternatively, it can be calculated as the distance between the edge points of the source contour and the target contour. Now let c1 be a source contour and c2 be a target contour. Suppose c1 c and c2 have been discretized as Nc edge data points, namely, {P1i }N i=1 ⊂ c1 j Nc and{P2 }j=1 ⊂ c2 . To be more robust, we use shape context [37] and the curvatures of the contour curve as shape descriptor. Different from similarity ranking for constructing graph G(Λ, E) in Subsection 4.1, however, here we do not use the wavelet moments as shape descriptor since we need to obtain point-to-point correspondences for achieving the goal of contour matching. Based on this shape descriptor, the distance between P1i (∈ c1 ) and P2j (∈ c2 ) is calculated as follows: d(P1i , P2j ) = χ2 (Ci1 , Cj2 ) + s1 ds2 (Ci1 , Cj2 ) + s2 dk (κi1 , κj2 ) + s3 dk2 (κi1 , κj2 ) (4) where Ci1 and κiS denote the shape context and the curvature of point P1i , respectively. Cj2 and κj2 have the same meanings as Ci1 and κi1 . s1 , s2 and s3 are weighting parameters, which are all manually set to be 0.001. In Eq. (4), χ2 (Ci1 , Cj2 ) and ds2 (Ci1 , Cj2 ) are calculated as the χ2 test statistics and the two order derivative of the shape context cost at the pair point of (P1i , P2j ) [38,39], dk (κiS , κjT ) and dk2 (κi1 , κj2 ) are the curvature cost and the two order derivative of the curvature cost. The reason here we use the two order derivatives is that neighboring points on c1 should also be neighboring after matched to c2 . After these distances are supplied to the graph, then belief propagation algorithm is performed to iteratively find the optimal assignment of source edge points to target edge points. Intrinsically, belief propagation yields a Maximum-A-Posteriori (MAP) probability solution. Equivalently in a negative log-probability framework, such solution corresponds to a minimum distance matching. Thus, the matching accuracy can be assessed via the mean distance of matched pairs of data points. More details about the contour matching algorithm can be found in [35]. Now we can generate new in-between contours based on c1 and c2 . Suppose point P1i (∈ c1 ) is matched to point P2ki (∈ c2 ), i = 1, 2, · · · , Nc . Then a new contour can be generated by linearly interpolating between correspondences: P i = P1i + r · (P2ki − P1i ), 8

i = 1, 2, · · · , Nc

(5)

320

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source destination

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140 source target

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source destination new

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(a)

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(b)

(c)

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(d)

Fig. 4. Two examples: (a), (b); and (c), (d). (a): the point-to-point correspondences; (b): the generated contour according to the correspondences shown in (a) with r = 0.5; (c): the correspondences under rotation invariance; (d): the generated contour with r = 0.5. Note that in the first example in (a) and (b) the contour generation is performed under the condition that the centroids of the two contours are overlapped together. We translate them to show clearly the correspondences.

where P i is the i-th point of the newly generated contour, and r is the ratio of the linear interpolation. If m contours need to be generated, then r = j/(m + 1), 1 ≤ j ≤ m. An example is demonstrated in Fig. 4(a) and Fig. 4(b). In this example, the two contours are obtained manually from two adjacent frames in a diving video, where the diver was preparing to jump from the spring board into the air. Curvature is naturally translation, scale and rotation invariance. Invariance to translation is intrinsic to the shape context. Scale invariance for shape context can be easily achieved by normalizing all of the radial distances with a median distance [37]. But it is not rotation invariance. However, c2 may yet be rotated from c1 , for example, when the diver keeps a fixed posture and rotates in the air. Thus it is necessary to consider the matching with rotation invariance. To this end, we treat the unsigned distance maps [40] of c1 and c2 as normal images and register c2 to c1 by minimizing the Hausdorff distance [41] to calculate the rotation matrix. After rotating c2 and matching it to c1 , we can get the needed point-to-point correspondences. An example is shown in Fig. 4(c) and Fig. 4(d). There two contours to be matched are obtained from a diving video, which correspond to two adjacent frames of the diver’s rotating in the air. Two notes. First, we point out that, given two contours, the belief propagation can always yield a contour matching with point-to-point correspondences, which can be used to generate in-between contours. It would be possible that the generated contours may be non-realistic if two very different postures are mis-identified as inter-subset neighbors when performing similarity ranking with contour descriptor. These contours will also be encoded into the augmented contour dictionary. However, all the contours sampled from this 9

dictionary during performing the SMC estimation will be evaluated via observation measurement (Subsection 5.3). Generally, those non-realistic contours will yield low likelihood values when performing observation measurement, which would be discarded during contour prediction with maximum likelihood selection (Subsection 5.2) and contour re-sampling with probabilistic distribution (Subsection 5.4). Second, we use linear interpolation between two neighboring contours to generate in-between contours. Actually, we can use other methods to replace linear interpolation to perform contour evolution from the source contour to the target contour, for example, the level-set based curve evolution approaches [40]. Here we assume that the evolution is linear since in most occasions we only need to match two neighboring contours which are similar to each other. That is, from time t − 1 to time t, we assume the change in shape is linear. In addition, linear interpolation is performed on each pair of the two matched edge points. Thus, the larger the distance of a pair of matched edge points is, the larger distance the newly-generated edge point should move. In this way, local deformations between the source contour and target contour can also be captured (see Fig. 4). 4.3

Augmented Contour Graph

The best way to obtain in-between contours is to generate them dynamically during tracking. This on-line treatment is proven to be impractical in SMC framework since contour matching is a highly complex operation and a large number of contours need to be matched to each other. Therefore, we select to generate them in an off-line way. For the graph G(Λ, E), each edge connects two neighbors. In-between contours can be generated along each edge. That is, we do not generate in-between contours from two non-neighboring contours. In computation, we will further neglect the edges connecting neighbors belonging to the same class but not being the nearest ones. For example, the edge connecting c(l, v) and c(l, v + 2) will not be considered. In this way, we get an augmented dictionary Λ0 . The contours in Λ0 can be divided into three classes. The first class contains the contours in Λ, for example, those with large circles in Fig. 5. The second class contains those generated from c(l, v) and c(l, v + 1), v = 1, · · · , Ll − 1; l = 1, · · · , L, for example, the contour c, b, etc.. The third contains those generated from two contours belonging to two different classes, for example, the contour i, j, etc.. Now a task is to get the neighbors of the contours in Λ0 . Here we take a, b and i in Fig. 5 as representatives to illustrate how to fulfil this task. 10

j i

a e

d

c

b n

k

l

f

g

h

m

Fig. 5. The contours in the augmented dictionary Λ0 . The contours in Λ are indicated by bigger circles, while the generated contours are indicated by smaller circles. The shadowed contours are the neighbors of contour “a”.

(1) For contour a, its new neighborhood set includes all the original neighbors in Λ and all the contours generated from them. That is, its intra-subset NA = {a, b, c, d, f, g, h, i, l} and its inter-subset NB = {j, k, m, n}. (2) For contour b, its NA equals to {e, d, c, b, a, f, g, i, l}, and NB equals to that of a since b is generated from a and d, but near to a. (3) For contour i, to be simplified we let its neighborhood set equal to that of a since i is generated from a and k, but near to a. In addition, the class label of i is also assigned to that of a. Note that when constructing the inter-subset NB of each contour in Λ0 , we need not rank the contours again. The reason is that the contour generation is performed on the original graph G(Λ, E), in which the neighboring contours in NB have already been ranked with contour features. The construction of NB for contours in Λ0 can be followed one of the above three cases. Based on Λ0 and the neighbors of each contour, we can finally construct an augmented graph G(Λ0 , E). This graph will be used during tracking. Finally, we point out that since contour graph can be prepared in advance, alternatively in applications, we can also edit a contour graph by manually assigning the neighbors of contours. In addition, in-between contours can also be supplied in other ways, such as interactive contour matching and generation.

5

Contour Graph Based SMC Estimation

Based on the contour graph, now the human to be tracked at time t can be represented as a five dimensional vector xt = (xt , yt , st , lt , vt )T . Here, (xt , yt ) is the position, that is, the centroid coordinate of contour c(lt , vt ), st is its size, and (lt , vt ) is the 2-tuple index in Λ0 . Now our task is to predict xt according to p(xt |xt−1 ) and evaluate the likelihood p(zt |xt ) according to the image observation measurement. 11

Note that the position, size and contour are independent from each other. Thus we can predict them respectively according to the dynamic models of p(xt , yt |xt−1 , yt−1 ), p(st |st−1 ) and p(lt , vt |lt−1 , vt−1 ). 5.1

Predicting Position and Size

For the position (xt , yt ) and the size parameter st , we use the following linear predicting equations: (xt , yt )T = A · (xt−1 , yt−1 )T + Et

(6)

st = st−1 + et

(7)

and where A is a matrix representing the deterministic component of the dynamic model, Et is a Gaussian noise vector, Et = (εxt , εyt )T ∼ N (µ, Σ), and et is a Gaussian random variable, et ∼ N (0, σs ). Then, we have µ



1 1 exp − (et − µ)T Σ−1 (et − µ) p(xt , yt |xt−1 , yt−1 ) = 1/2 2π · |Σ| 2 and

Ã

1 (st − st−1 )2 p(st |st−1 ) = √ exp − 2σs2 2π · σs where in Eq. (8) et = (xt , yt )T − A · (xt−1 , yt−1 )T .

(8)

!

(9)

The dynamic model in Eq. (8) includes the matrix A, which should be determined in advance. In the absence of prior knowledge, it may be very difficult to supply such a matrix fitting to real data, due to both the human motion and the camera motion. An alternative way is to simply set A as an identity matrix. Then, Eq. (8) is equivalent to a random search. In this case, we need to increase the variances of εxt and εyt as well as the number of the samples to sample the right positions. Ideally, the sampling process should be guided by prior knowledge, through which we can convert a process of randomly sampling into one of importance sampling. In other words, importance distribution approach [42] will be used to replace the Gaussian distribution in Eq. (8). 5.2 Predicting Contour Based on graph G(Λ0 , E) and according to Eq. (2), (lt , vt ) can be randomly sampled from I(lt−1 , vt−1 ) with equal probability. However, this treatment may 12

Neighborhood

c(l t−1 , vt−1)

(x t , yt )

(xt−1, yt−1 )

t−1 frame

t frame

Fig. 6. A demo process of contour prediction. At time t, the contour c(lt , vt ) is selected to be one of the neighbors of c(lt−1 , vt−1 ).

be inefficient since the k likelihoods {p(zt |xt )} will differ from each other. Here we introduce a data-driven prediction mechanism in which the neighbor with maximum likelihood is selected for time t. Suppose we are given a contour in the SMC estimation at time t − 1 and denote it by c(lt−1 , vt−1 ). First, according to graph G(Λ, E), at time t, c(lt−1 , vt−1 ) should be selected from one of the neighbors of c(lt−1 , vt−1 ). That is, starting from c(lt−1 , vt−1 ), the random walk at time t should be limited to jump only to one of its neighbors. Second, among the neighbors, we select the one with maximum likelihood value: (l0 , v0 ) = arg max{p(zt |xt ) | xt = (xt , yt , st , lt , vt )T } (lt ,vt )

(10)

where (lt , vt ) ∈ I(lt−1 , vt−1 ). Finally, we let (lt , vt ) = (l0 , v0 ). That is, if we start from c(lt−1 , vt−1 ) at time t − 1, we will select the contour c(l0 , v0 ) ∈ Λ0 at time t. Fig. 6 illustrates an example. Among the seven neighbors of c(lt−1 , vt−1 ), for c(lt , vt ), the best candidate could be the fifth contour.

5.3

Evaluating Likelihood

To calculate the likelihood p(zt |xt ), we scale c(lt , vt ) with st , and translate it to the position (xt , yt ). Denoting the transformed contour by ˆ ct , we have: p(zt |xt ) = p(zt |ˆ ct ) To calculate p(zt |ˆ ct ), the multi-cue likelihood model is employed [23]: p(zt |ˆ ct ) = [pe (zt |ˆ ct )]αe · [pc (zt |ˆ ct )]αc 13

(11)

where pe (zt |ˆ ct ) is the edge likelihood value, pc (zt |ˆ ct ) is the color likelihood value, and αc and αe are edge and color reliability factors, respectively. In this paper, we manually set αc = 0.7 and αe = 0.3. Here, pe (zt |ˆ ct ) is evaluated by Isard’s approach [6] and pc (zt |ˆ ct ) is calculated by Comaniciu’s approach [43]. Usually, it would take more time to calculate pc (zt |ˆ ct ) because we need to scan the pixels in ˆ ct to get the color statistics. 5.4

Performing A SMC Estimation The steps of the algorithm can be summarized as follows:

Initialization: At time t = 0, we input N/L samples for each of the L (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) T classes. Totally we have N samples {x0 }N n=1 , where x0 = [x0 , y0 , s0 , l0 , v0 ] . (n) The weight of each sample is set to be 1/N , namely, w0 = 1/N . (n)

SMC estimation: At time t (> 0), generate N samples {xt }N n=1 from (n) N (n) N {xt−1 }n=1 based on the weights {wt−1 }n=1 obtained at time t − 1, and evaluate (n) the new weights {wt }N n=1 at time t. The computation includes three substeps: (n)

(n)

0 N (1) Re-sampling. According to {wt−1 }N n=1 , sample N samples {x t−1 }n=1 . Reset the weight of each sample to be 1/N . (n)

(n)

(n)

(n)

(n)

(n)

(2) Prediction. Based on x0 t−1 , predict (xt , yt ), st , and (lt , vt ) according to Eq. (8), (9) and (10), respectively. Group them together to obtain (n) a new state xt . (n)

(3) Correction. Calculate the likelihood value {p(zt |xt )}N n=1 according to (n) Eq. (11). After normalizing them, we get the sample weights {wt }N n=1 . To perform the above SMC estimation, an important work is to initialize (n) (n) N samples {x0 }N n=1 at time t = 0. For each sample x0 , we need to assign it (n) (n) (n) (n) (n) a position (x0 , y0 ), a size s0 and a contour index (l0 , v0 ). Note that parameter s is a continuous variable. To be simplified, we equally discretized it as J values. In experiments, we set J = 3 and s ∈ S = {0.95, 1.0, 1.05}. Now the steps of initialization can be summarized as follows: (l,n)

(1) For each class l, randomly sample N/L positions (x0 0 1, · · · , N/L; l = 1, · · · , L. 14

(l,n)

, y00

), n =

(l,n)

(2) At each position (x0 0 size s and the index v: (l,n)

(x0 0

(l,n)

, y00

(l,n)

, y00

), generate J × Ll samples by adding the

, s, l, v),

s ∈ S, (l,n)

(3) calculate the likelihood of (x0 0

(l,n)

, y00

v = 1, · · · , Ll , s, l, v) according to Eq. (11). (l,n)

(4) Based on the likelihoods, re-sample J×Ll samples from {(x0 0

(l,n)

, y00

, s, l, v)}.

(5) For each class, select N/L samples with larger weights from the J × Ll re-sampled samples.

Finally, we point out that in a SMC estimation, re-sampling takes an important role in density propagation. The re-sampling process can generate several copies of a sample with larger weight. This means a walk on the graph G(Λ0 , E) with larger weight will be encouraged to walk ahead. In other words, a walk with lower weight may be stopped at next time.

6

Sequence Recognition

Through random walk and likelihood estimation, the L sequences in the gallery G are compared implicitly with the real contours in the video to be recognized. Such information is recorded into the distribution of lt . Specifically, the number of the samples with same action label lt ∈ L = {1, 2, · · · , L} can be calculated. Normalized by the total number of samples, it turns to be a label score. Averaging all the label scores over time, we get a similarity measurement slabel (i) as follows: t2 X 1 slabel (i) = st (i), t2 − t1 + 1 t=t1

i = 1, 2, · · · , L

(12)

where st (i) is the label score of the i-th action sequence in G at time t, and [t1 , t2 ] is the time interval to be considered. Another measurement from sequence comparison is based on the tracked contour sequence S = ˆ c0ˆ c1 · · · ˆ cT . We can compare it with the L sequences in G one-by-one. To this end, we need to measure the dissimilarity between contours. The steps are as follows: (1) Match two contours via belief propagation [35]; 15

(2) Calculate the mean distance of all the pairs of the matched points and use this distance as contour dissimilarity. Based on the above contour dissimilarity, sequence S is matched to the L sequences in G respectively via dynamic time warping approach. Finally, we use the match cost as the dissimilarity between two sequences. In this way, we get L dissimilarities and denote them by ddtw (i), i = 1, · · · , L. Further, the similarity score can be calculated as follows: sdtw (i) = 1 −

ddtw (i) , i = 1, 2, · · · , L ddtw (1) + · · · ddtw (L)

Now the two scores can be fused together: s(i) = w1 · slabel + w2 · sdtw (i),

i = 1, 2, · · · , L

(13)

Here w1 and w2 are two weights which are manually set in this paper. Finally, the real sequence is classified into the class with highest score.

7

Experimental Results

This Section reports experimental results on diving sequence recognition. Diving is a kind of complex sports with strict technical rules. It requires the diver to perform a set of quite complex and coherent actions in a few seconds. Due to limited time in the air, the body postures change very fast. Only when the diver is keeping a fixed posture and rotating in the air, the motion can be viewed as rigid motion. Due to strict technical rules, however, for one action, the body contours in different videos are similar to each other. This leads us to develop contour graph to achieve the tasks of tracking and recognizing diving actions. 7.1 Introduction to Diving Action According to the international rule, diving can be decided into six groups: “1 = forward”, “2 = back”, “3 = reverse”, “4 = inward”, “5 = twisting” and “6 = armstand”. There are four body positions: “A = straight”, “B = pike”, “C = tuck” and “D = free”. “A”, “B” and “C” are basic positions. If the body position is “free”, it can be “twist”and one of three basic positions. The number of twists may be 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, etc.. The corresponding code is “1”, “2”, “3”, “4”, “5”, etc.. Fig. 7 shows four body positions. Other two 16

Fig. 7. Four body postures: “straight”, “pike”, “tuck” and “twist” (from left to right). 205B

the second group, no flying, 2.5 somersaults, pike

205C

the second group, no flying, 2.5 somersaults, tuck

401A

the fourth group, no flying, 0.5 somersaults, straight

403A

the fourth group, no flying, 1.5 somersaults, straight

403B

the fourth group, no flying, 1.5 somersaults, pike

405B

the fourth group, no flying, 2.5 somersaults, pike

405C

the fourth group, no flying, 2.5 somersaults, tuck

5231D

the fifth group, back diving, 1.5 somersaults, 0.5 twists, free

5235D the fifth group, back diving, 1.5 somersaults, 2.5 twists, free Table 2 Diving Actions to be recognized.

technical parameters are flying style and number of somersaults. There have two flying styles: “0 = no flying” and “1 = flying”. The number of somersaults may be 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, etc., and the corresponding code is “1”, “2”, “3”, “4”, “5”, etc.. For the first to fourth group, an action code includes number of group, flying style, number of somersaults, and the body position, such as 101A, 205B, 205C, 405B, etc.. For the fifth group, an action code includes number of group, jumping direction, number of somersaults, number of twists, and body position, such as 5231D, 5412D, etc.. For the sixth group, an action code includes number of group, jumping direction, number of somersaults and body position, for example, 614A.

7.2 Gallery Sequences and Test Sequences We test our approach on two video sets. One set collects the videos of three female divers, which contains nine action codes: 205B, 205C, 401A, 403A, 403B, 405B, 5231D, 5235D, specified in Table 2. The other set collects the videos of two male divers, which contains four action codes: 205C, 403A, 405B, 5235D. 17

Fig. 8. Six examples extracted by hand from a sequence of 405C.

We first labeled nine female video sequences with different action codes (namely, the training sequences). The starting point of each video sequence corresponds to the moment that the diver prepares to jump from the spring board, and the end point is selected at the moment that the hands of the diver just touch the water surface. The length of each video segment is about 65 frames. Then, we manually extract the body contours from these nine video sequences. Fig. 8 illustrates six examples which are manually extracted from a sequence of 405C. Note that the arms are not accurately labeled. The reason is that the action code of diving is determined largely by the postures of the body, not by the actions of the arms. After collecting all the labeled contours together, we obtained a female contour dictionary Λ. All these contours are then filled with white color to calculate the wavelet moments [34]. A female contour graph G(Λ, E) is finally obtained according to the approach introduced in Section 4.1. Following the same way to construct the female contour dictionary, we manually labeled four male video sequences with different action codes and finally constructed a male contour graph for treating male diving actions. Totally, we have 73 sequences of female diving actions and 23 sequences of male diving actions to be recognized. All theses videos are taken at a distance from three female divers and two male divers under the same taking condition that is used to construct the training sequences. During video recording, the camera may slightly rotate along the support. Thus the backgrounds of the videos are non-static. We will conduct three experiments. The first two experiments are to track and recognize the female and male diving actions, respectively based on their own contour dictionaries. In the third experiment, the female contour dictionary will be used to track and recognize the male diving actions. We will not conduct the experiment of tracking and recognizing the female diving actions by using the male contour dictionary since there are only four kinds of male diving actions while there are nine kinds of female diving actions to be recognized in the data set. 18

Fig. 9. Left: source image; Right: the edge extracted by Canny edge detector.

7.3 Image Measurement To calculate the likelihood p(zt |ˆ ct ), we use Canny edge detector to obtain edge image for evaluating pe (zt |ˆ ct ). Fig. 9 shows an example. We can see that the body edge is cluttered by the background. Based on this cluttered edge image, it is difficult to obtain effective likelihoods. Thus we use skin color to alleviate the difficulty. The skin color image is collected manually in advance. The skin colors are transformed into HSV color space. Back-project image is then evaluated from the current frame image. It is further binarized. We use it to mask the canny edge image. The filtered edge image is finally used to calculate pe (zt |ˆ ct ). The binarized back-project image is also used to sample the position (xt , yt ) via importance sampling approach. The importance image is obtained by averaging the local patches of the binarized back-project image. The size of the local patches is that of the bounding box of ˆ ct−1 at time t − 1. This importance image is finally normalized to be an importance distribution to replace the Gaussian distribution in Eq. (8). As an importance image, it will also help to recover the tracking in a few frames when the tracker loses the diver.

7.4

Tracking and Recognition Results

The parameters used in three experiments are given as follows. In Eq. (7), we let σs = 0.05. In Eq. (11), αe = 0.3 and αc = 0.7. To initialize the scale parameter s0 at time t = 0, we let S = {0.95, 1.0, 1.05}. The sample number is 4000. We use the graph G(Λ0 , E) with k1 = 5 and k2 = 2 to predict contours. When generating new contours from a pair of two neighboring contours, we set m = 2. On average, we can track 5-6 frames per second on a 1.7GHz CPU with 512M RAM using C++ language. Some tracked contours are shown in Fig. 10, Fig. 11 and Fig. 12. The results in Fig. 10 are obtained from three female diving sequences with the female contour dictionary. The results in Fig. 11 are obtained from three male 19

Fig. 10. Some tracked results from three video sequences of female divers with the female contour dictionary.

diving sequences with the male contour dictionary. To check if the developed contour dictionary can be extended to deal with different body types, we use the female contour dictionary to track the male divers. Fig. 12 shows some tracked results. As can be seen, the contours in the female contour dictionary can also roughly approximate the male contours. But in contrast, they are not able to gear the male bodies very well. Four curves of label scores are shown in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14, which are obtained respectively with the female contour dictionary and the male contour dictionary. We see that at the beginning all the label scores are all small. In this phase the video can be classified into anyone of the actions since most postures are similar to each other. But the dominant motion characteristic is gradually shown out over time, even with vibrations (see the bold lines in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14). When calculating the similarity slabel (i) in Eq. (12), we set t1 = 25 and t2 = 55. Such two parameters are taken empirically. Actually, in the start phase of the diver’s preparing to jump from the spring board, the postures of divers are all similar to each other. In this phase, there are no significantly discriminative postures for action recognition. In addition, in the end phase 20

Fig. 11. Some tracked results from three video sequences of male divers with the male contour dictionary.

of the diver’s preparing to dive into the water by keeping the body vertically, the postures are also similar to each other. Thus we will not consider the contours tracked in these frames. As a result, for 73 female sequences and 23 male sequences, we can achieve about 68% correct recognition rate on average with this single similarity measurement. We further use sequence comparison and introduce another global feature to recognize the diving actions. This global feature is the number of somersaults. This value is obtained by tracking the toe point of the diver, based on the tracked sequence S = ˆ c0ˆ c1 · · · ˆ cT . The details can be found in our previous work [44]. Denote the somersaults of L sequences in G by Πi (i = 1, · · · , L) and that of the test sequence by Π. The similarity of somersaults is calculated as follows: |Π − Πi | ssomer (i) = 1 − Πmax here Πmax is the maximum difference and equals to 5.0 since the number of somersaults in G is in [-2.5, 2.5]. Finally, all the scores are fused together: s(i) = w1 · slabel + w2 · sdtw (i) + w3 · ssomer (i),

i = 1, 2, · · · , L

(14)

In experiments, we manually set w1 = w2 = 0.25 and w3 = 0.5. The real 21

Fig. 12. Some tracked results from three video sequences of male divers with the female contour dictionary.

label score

0.25 0.2

205B 205C 401A 403A 403B 405B 405C 5231D 5235D

0.25

label score

0.3

0.15

0.2

205B 205C 401A 403A 403B 405B 405C 5231D 5235D

0.15 0.1

0.1

0.05

0.05 10

20 30 frame number

40

0

50

10

20

30 40 frame number

50

60

Fig. 13. The class label score curves of two test female video sequences, by using the female contour dictionary.

sequence to be recognized is finally classified into the class with highest score. In this way, with the labeled nine female sequences, we can obtain about 92% (≈ 67/73) correct recognition rate on average. With the labeled four male sequences, we can obtain about 91% (≈ 21/23) correct recognition rate on average. In the third experiment, we also test the 23 sequences of male divers by using the labeled female sequences. In this experiment, we only obtain 61% 22

0.5

205C 403A 405B 5235D

0.6

205C 403A 405B 5235D

label score

label score

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.3 0.2

0.1 0

0.4

0.1 10

20

30 40 frame number

0

50

10

20

30 40 frame number

50

Fig. 14. The class label score curves of two test male video sequences, by using the male contour dictionary.

(≈ 14/23) correct recognition rate on average. The main reason that we get low recognition accuracy is that the female contours can not gear well the male contours.

8

Conclusions

In this paper, we proposed a simple but effective framework to human tracking and action sequence recognition. A contour dictionary is first constructed from the prototype action sequences. Based on this contour dictionary, a contour graph is constructed via k-nearest neighbors approach. The motion in a video can be explained as a random walk on this graph. Thus, we can avoid parameterizing the human contours as well as formulating the complex dynamics of contour updating. In addition, a score fusion approach is introduced to perform action sequence recognition. Experiments on diving action tracking and recognition illustrate the validity of our method. The contour dictionary largely determines the effectiveness and efficiency of our proposed framework. One advantage in practice is that one only needs to supply a suitable contour dictionary for tracking. Thus, such a framework can be easily used in the field of sports video analysis where the actions are stipulated according to the rules. The disadvantage of our framework is also obvious. The contour dictionary should also include the contours of all actions to obtain accurate results. The larger the number of the contours in the dictionary, the more time the tracker needs to treat each frame image in a SMC estimation. In future we will develop fast algorithm of our algorithm for real time performance. We will also combine the contour graph into other visual tracking frameworks based on non-SMC estimations to reduce the object search time in high dimensional spaces. 23

Acknowledgements This work is supported by the Projection (60475001) of the National Nature Science Foundation of China and the basic research foundation of Tsinghua National Laboratory for Information Science and Technology (TNList). The anonymous reviewers have helped to improve the quality and representation of this paper.

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