C ONSTRAINTS FOR ICT IMPLEMENTATION IN RURAL Z AMBIA Gertjan van Stam, David Johnson, Veljko Pejovic, Consider Mudenda, Austin Sinzala, Darelle van Greunen [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], consider.mudenda,[email protected], [email protected]

P ROBLEM

E NVIRONMENTAL C ONSTRAINTS

S KILLS C ONSTRAINTS

Introduction and use of ICT in rural SubSaharan Africa face a particular array of challenges. These interrelate with context, tradition, and culture. This research aims to identify constraints influencing the sensitization, introduction and operations of ICT in rural Zambia.

M ETHOD Mixed methods research addressing multidisciplinary research questions, within a singlecase study of LinkNet at Macha Works in rural Zambia. Data collection involves critical ethnography over 9 years.

Embedded studies analyse quantitative, longitudinal usage data derived from the ICT network in Macha, based upon network traffic monitoring system on the village network gateway. Further, surveys of Internet usage and attitudes towards ICT, one-on-one, on-site interviews and, follow up through 44 online interviews of Internet users in Macha.

C ONCLUSION This research identifies practical constraints to the inclusion of ICT based upon 9 years of longitudinal activity in rural Zambia. Constraints break down into environmental, skills, and cultural constraints. They are part of a large picture of ethical, conceptual and pragmatic issues. Constraints, and their contingencies, heavily influence ICT practice, efforts, and activities in rural Zambia.

300 people possessed graduate qualification in ICT in Zambia in 2008 [4]. Uneven urban/rural distribution of workforce and task shifting result in quality constraints. No national programs exist for training of ICT practitioners in rural areas. Training is mostly left to the unregulated, commercial markets in major towns. Engineering knowledge base is mostly outside of Africa. Local research is not stimulated, nor integrated.

Local users have little control over environmental constraints. They include:

erty issues • Sentiment versus Science, where technology performs different to expectation • Political and Legal constraints, with regulatory framework, USF, policies and (customary) law • Economic constraints: rising costs, incl. bandwidth prices (+55% since 2004 [1])

• Geographical constraints, due to huge size of Africa, road conditions, dust, and weather • Infrastructural constraints, involving electricity (grid and solar), housing and prop-

Unavailablity of housing or offices in rural areas constrain progress. Sources of funding for building activities are sparse. 94% of Zambia is rural land [2] and 61% of the population of Zambia lives in rural areas [3].

C ULTURAL C ONSTRAINTS

C ASE W INDOWS VERSUS L INUX

C ASE E LECTRICITY

Ubuntu and Western traditions differ significantly. These are antonyms derived from observations within rural Zambia:

In LinkNet’s rural networks, Windows users experience poorer performance than Linux or Mac OS users. Network analysis of satellite Internet traffic reveals large disparity in performance between Windows and Linux/Mac.

Electricity is a vital resource, also in rural areas. National electricity supply is either unavailable or unreliable. Power failures, voltage surges, transients and spikes, or brown-outs are common. An example of power outages in October 2012:

There were almost double the number of Windows users compared to Linux/Mac users. Windows outgoing normalized aggregate traffic was three times worse than Linux/Mac. Incoming Windows normalized traffic was only marginally worse than Linux. Replication in laboratory confirmed these findings. There are sound technical reasons for the difference in performance between Windows and Linux. However, frustrated users are convinced that performance issues are due to a poorly designed network or, worse, that Windows users are being deliberately disadvantaged.

Many standards of equipment arrive in rural areas. Uninterrupted Power Supplies (UPS), meant to protect equipment from energy disruptions gets damaged as first line of defence. In practice, solar equipment proves difficult to source. Battery replacement is costly and involving.

R EFERENCES [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]

Gertjan van Stam. Observations from rural Africa: An engineer involved in ICTs and critical ethnography in Macha, Zambia. In UCSB Center for Information Technology and Society Lecture Series, Santa Barbara, CA, USA, 2012. Martin Adams. Land tenure policy and practice in Zambia: issues relating to the development of the agricultural sector. Mokoro Ltd, Oxford, 2003. Central Statistics Office Zambia. 2010 Census of Population and Housing Preliminary Report, 2011. Shuller Habeenzu. Zambia ICT Sector Performance Review 2009/2010, volume Two. Research ICT Africa, 2010. Kevin Sheneberger and Gertjan van Stam. Relatio: An Examination of the Relational Dimension of Resource Allocation. Economics and Finance Review, 1(4):26 – 33, 2011. Gertjan van Stam. Information and Knowledge Transfer in the rural community of Macha, Zambia (in press). The Journal of Community Informatics. Jasper Bets, Gertjan van Stam, and Anne-marie Voorhoeve. Modelling and Practice of Integral Development, Case Macha. In Africomm 2012, 2012.

Economic choice in rural areas need insight in its constitution, restraint and motivation (Relatio [5]). Rural areas lean towards primary orality [6]. Rural communities build relationships carefully, testing commitments, character, and relational aspects [7]. Rural associates work in different roles and capacities at the same time. Cultural embedding is a serious constraint. Traditional leaders are the respected custodians of culture. Rural life submits to customary law. All stakeholders, including Chiefs must be consulted for any intervention in a rural community.