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Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in West Africa – 2. The scientific challenges and contributions Elisabeth Kalko, Minnattallah Boutros, Jakob Fahr, Njikoha Ebigbo, K. Eduard Linsenmair, Karsten Mody, Mark-Oliver Rödel, Jörg Szarzynski The situation in West Africa On a global scale, West Africa harbors one of the most important biodiversity hotspots with high species richness and a high degree of endemism of animal and plants. What do we know about this region? It is characterized by small and large-scale habitat heterogeneity that follows a steep gradient in precipitation spanning from the arid parts in the North to the wetter parts in the South. The abiotic gradient is matched by a biotic gradient ranging from the species-poor vegetation of semi-deserts to species-rich biomes such as the savanna-forest mosaic and rainforests. Increasingly, however, the high human population density, particularly in the biologically most diverse parts of West Africa, and the continuing population growth leads to severe and often broad scale changes in land cover and (over-) exploitation of natural resources with a resulting loss of biodiversity. Taking Côte d´Ivoire as an example, data of the World Resource Institute show that already at the beginning of the 90’s, average population density exceeded 50 or even more than 100 persons/km2 in many parts of the country. Population pressure on land use is strikingly reflected in the reduction of natural forest cover in Côte d´Ivoire which dwindled in less than 40 years (1955-1993) from 8.3 to 1.5 million hectares. Today, less than 1 million hectares of forest remain, most of which is found inside a few protected areas including Taï National Park, one of the last remnants of lowland rainforest in West Africa, and Comoé National Park with its varied mosaic of savanna, gallery forest and forest islands.

The challenge for science: the landscape and the human perspective Considering this ever increasing loss of species and habitats, the development of strategies that permit the sustainable use of natural resources and its harmonization with preservation of biodiversity is one of the most pressing and most difficult scientific challenges we face today. Even though the general importance of West Africa as a biodiversity hotspot is appreciated, there are still huge gaps in our knowledge. Not even the most basic data on distribution, abundance and ecology are available for many species and taxa of animals

and plants. This lack of knowledge extends further into species interactions and dynamics of ecosystems on local and regional scales - data that are crucial to recognize and to preserve potential ecosystem services for humans. Acquisition of data on fundamental composition and properties of ecosystems needs to be fast and effective. Already now the accelerating pace of changes in land use seriously impacts and disrupts patterns and functioning of biodiversity. For instance, the extensive removal of forest cover and degradation of land types is known to feed back into changes of the local and regional climate. As it is in part a closed-loop system, changes in regional climate in turn affect local and regional diversity patterns. How can these tremendous scientific challenges be met? There are at least two perspectives that need to be considered and combined: the landscape perspective and the human perspective. In order to assess human impacts on ecosystem functioning and to develop any plans for sustainable use, basic research on species richness, distribution and abundance are mandatory and should be based on longterm monitoring. The scales and dimensions of this challenge are vast compared to our limited knowledge and to the inherent limitations of funding. Therefore a careful a priori selection needs to be made to identify species or taxa that play fundamental roles in ecosystem services and processes. Consequently, assessment and monitoring of biodiversity needs to be conducted with standardized methodology at several spatial scales. Here, the establishment of biodiversity observatories to monitor diversity patterns and functioning across local, regional and global scales is a useful tool to evaluate the variability, dynamics, and resilience of ecosystems over time. A main focus needs to be given to functional components, in particular biotic interactions such as seed dispersal, pollination and herbivory, which are crucial for the maintenance of biodiversity. Regarding the human perspective, studies need to take into account (colonial) history as well as ethnic and cultural diversity of people resident in the study area. Only with a thorough knowledge of this background will it be possible to adequately evaluate different land use systems, to assess their impact on biodiversity patterns and functioning, and to develop realistic alternatives. Combined with a strong focus on capacity building and participatory approaches, a joint scientific program is the prerequisite for any project that aims at supporting and developing local and regional management plans for the sustainable use of natural resources.

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Some examples to face this challenge from the BIOTA West studies A few selected studies from BIOTA-West shall serve to illustrate the scientific challenges and how they are met. To assess diversity patterns on a large scale, bats (Chiroptera) have been chosen as one of the study taxa because of their high diversity and ecosystem services including seed dispersal, pollination, and insect predation. On a global scale, bat assemblages in Africa have been regarded as species-poor in contrast to bat assemblages in the New World tropics and in Australasia. However, intensive standardized sampling and the combination of several methods not only revealed a much higher species richness of African bats than previously thought but also clearly demonstrates a tight link of bat species richness to differences in topodiversity and land cover. Overall, habitat heterogeneity drives diversity in bats which is best illustrated by the fact that highest species richness in West Africa does not occur in the rainforest region but in the highly dynamic forest-savanna mosaics. Regional diversity patterns and natural dynamics are best seen in ephemeral savanna waters and fish communities. Even though about 90 species of fish from 23 families

were documented within a stretch of about 1.100 km along the Comoé River, a small and temporary river contained more than 60 species of fish from 17 families within a stretch of only 100 m. Due to the high number of different, often nutrient rich habitats with reduced predation pressure a lot of species migrate laterally in these ephemeral waters. The heterogeneity of habitats offers optimal conditions for a lot of highly diverse species to grow and reproduce during the rainy season. Therefore, ephemeral waters are essential for the productivity of these rivers. As fish represents a major source of protein for many local people, the results of this study will lay the foundation for more applied research in this area. Amphibians have been selected to assess the effects of disturbance regimes on regional and local diversity patterns. Because of their semipermeable skin they react quickly to environmental changes and because of the dependence of amphibians on humid surroundings, they are suitable indicators of environmental quality. The results of this study show convincingly that species composition of amphibians differs strikingly between primary forest, secondary forest, plantations, and forest fragments. In total 57 amphibians species have been recorded from the Taï region. In Figure 3

100 %

Figure 3. Proportion of amphibian habitat specialists in primary (N = 6), secondary (N = 4) and fragmented (N = 14) forest sites in south-western Côte d’Ivoire (Taï National Park and surroundings) (M.- O. Rödel, original data).

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the percentage of species restricted to primary forests, species occurring predominantly in primary or secondary forests and species that only occur in savanna and heavily degraded forest habitats is given. The percentage of primary forest specialists is continuously decreasing with forest degradation. This means that only a few species are generalists and tolerate different degrees of disturbance, the majority of species are restricted to undisturbed and specific habitat types. On a small scale, composition of arthropod communities on savanna trees was highly predictable for individual trees, but highly variable for different individuals even of the same tree species. The predictable composition of individual communities was caused by persistent preferences of most abundant arthropod species for some tree individuals, leading to persistent aggregations on these trees. This was exemplarily shown for the distribution of the beetle Apogonia fatidica (Scarabaeidae), which aggregated on the same tree individuals in different years. This study pointed out the important role local factors can play for the distribution of organisms and thereby for community organization. It emphasized the relevance of small scale heterogeneity of the abiotic and biotic environment to biodiversity and the need to consider these factors for development of effective conservation and restoration strategies. Finally, regarding ecological roles of key taxa, flying foxes (Figure 4) turn out to be important seed dispersers for a variety of trees, many of which are used by humans for firewood, fruit or traditional medicine. Spatial patterns of seed dispersal suggest that flying foxes strongly influence regeneration processes of plants in and around forest islands. This is due to their specific foraging behavior which determines to a large degree seed shadow and germination success.

Figure 4. The dwarf epauleted fruit bat Micropteropus pusillus (Pteropodidae) perched on the pod of the tropical tree Cola cordifolia (Sterculiaceae) one of its primary fruit resources in West Africa. (Photo: Ingo Arndt)

References Bakarr M, Bailey B, Byler D, Ham R, Olivieri S & Omland M, eds (2001) From the Forest to the Sea: Biodiversity Connections from Guinea to Togo. Conservation International, Washington, D.C. Brooks T, Balmford A, Burgess N, Fjeldså J, Hansen LA, Moore J, Rahbek C, Williams PH (2001) Toward a blueprint for conservation in Africa. BioScience 51:613-624 Fahr J & Ebigbo NM (2004) Rapid survey of bats (Chiroptera) in the Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon, Guinea. In: McCullough, J (ed) A Rapid Biological Assessment of Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon, Simandou Range, Southeastern Republic of Guinea, RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment, 35. Conservation International, Washington, D.C. 67-75.

Conclusion

Mody K, Bardorz HA & Linsenmair KE (2003) Organization of arthropod assemblages in individual African savanna trees. In: Basset Y, Novotny V,

To conclude, diversity patterns in West Africa are complex, scale-dependant and highly variable in space and time. After the pilot phase of BIOTA West, continuation of basic research and long-term monitoring are indispensable tools to account for the high complexity and dynamics in the ecosystems of West Africa. In parallel, next steps in the scientific process include the investigation of the consequences of human impact on biodiversity and its relations to (socio-) economic needs of the local population. Additionally, a strong focus on predictive modeling will allow to evaluate the potential impact of global change scenarios on local and regional biodiversity patterns and its possible socio-economic consequences. Last but not least, the intensification of capacity building will be the crucial prerequisite to guarantee the local application and further development of these objectives in the long run.

Miller SE & Kitching RL (eds) Arthropods of tropical forests: spatio-temporal dynamics and resource use in the canopy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 198-212. Moore JL, Manne L, Brooks T, Burgess ND, Davies R, Rahbek C, Williams P, Balmford A (2002) The distribution of cultural and biological diversity in Africa. Proc R Soc Lond B 269:1645-1653 Rödel MO & Ernst R (2004, in press) Measuring and monitoring amphibian diversity in tropical forests. I. An evaluation of methods with recommendations for standardization. Ecotropica 10.

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Sustainable use and conservation of biological diversity - A challenge for society Proceedings of the International Symposium Berlin, 1 – 4 December 2003

Editors: Erwin Beck, Bayreuth Walter G. Berendsohn, Berlin Minnattallah Boutros, Würzburg Manfred Denich, Bonn Klaus Henle, Leipzig Norbert Jürgens, Hamburg Michael Kirk, Marburg Volkmar Wolters, Gießen

Managing editors: Gerhard Michling, Bonn Lothar Quintern, Bonn Martin Rieland, Bonn Arndt Wüstemeyer, Bonn Publisher: PT-DLR Environmental Research and Technology Project management organization on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research Heinrich-Konen-Straße 1 53227 Bonn, Germany Phone: +49-228-8199611 Fax: +49-228-8199640 Mail: [email protected] Web: www.biolog-online.info Design: Sehstern, Berlin Print: Medialis, Berlin Book orders: This proceedings book as well as the Symposium Report Part A (ISBN: 3-00-012577-9) may be ordered by the publisher free of charge. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, wether the whole or part of the material is concerned. Permission for use must always be obtained from the publisher. Photo credits: The photographs were received from the following sources: Ingo Arndt, Minnattallah Boutros, Viola Clausnitzer, Manfred Denich, Jakob Fahr, Wolfram Freund, Klaus Henle, Thomas Hurek, Agnes Kirchhoff, Manfred Kraemer, Zig Koch, Souleymane Konaté, Karl Eduard Linsenmair, Jahn Maier, Jens Mutke,Tessa Oliver, Stefan Porembski, Lothar Quintern, Henning Steinicke, Ulrich Saint Paul, Nikolaus Schareika, Beate Schleifer, Marco Schmidt, Brice Sinsin, Jörg Szarzynski, Melanie Vogel, Anne Zillikens. We would also like to thank the various work groups for providing us with photographs.

Bonn, December 2004

ISBN: 3-00-013641-X

The biodiversity symposium ”Sustainable use and conservation of biological diversity – A challenge for society” (Berlin, December 2003) as well as this proceedings book are financed by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. This publication is distributed free of charge by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as part of its public relations work. It is not intended for commercial sale. It may not be used by political parties, candidates or electoral assistants during an election campaign. This applies to parliamentary, state assembly and local government elections as well as to elections to the European Parliament. In particular the distribution of this publication at election events and at the information stands of political parties, as well as the insertion, printing or affixing of party political information, are regarded as improper use. The distribution of this publication to third parties as a form of campaign publicity is also prohibited. Regardless of how recipients came into possession of this publication and how many copies of it they may have, it may not be used in a manner that may be considered as showing the partisanship of the Federal Government in favour of individual political groups, even if not within the context of an upcoming election.

Editors: Erwin Beck, Bayreuth Walter G. Berendsohn, Berlin Minnattallah Boutros, Würzburg Manfred Denich, Bonn Klaus Henle, Leipzig Norbert Jürgens, Hamburg Michael Kirk, Marburg Volkmar Wolters, Gießen

Managing editors: Gerhard Michling, Bonn Lothar Quintern, Bonn Martin Rieland, Bonn Arndt Wüstemeyer, Bonn Publisher: PT-DLR Environmental Research and Technology Project management organization on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research Heinrich-Konen-Straße 1 53227 Bonn, Germany Phone: +49-228-8199611 Fax: +49-228-8199640 Mail: [email protected] Web: www.biolog-online.info Design: Sehstern, Berlin Print: Medialis, Berlin Book orders: This proceedings book as well as the Symposium Report Part A (ISBN: 3-00-012577-9) may be ordered by the publisher free of charge. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, wether the whole or part of the material is concerned. Permission for use must always be obtained from the publisher. Photo credits: The photographs were received from the following sources: Ingo Arndt, Minnattallah Boutros, Viola Clausnitzer, Manfred Denich, Jakob Fahr, Wolfram Freund, Klaus Henle, Thomas Hurek, Agnes Kirchhoff, Manfred Kraemer, Zig Koch, Souleymane Konaté, Karl Eduard Linsenmair, Jahn Maier, Jens Mutke,Tessa Oliver, Stefan Porembski, Lothar Quintern, Henning Steinicke, Ulrich Saint Paul, Nikolaus Schareika, Beate Schleifer, Marco Schmidt, Brice Sinsin, Jörg Szarzynski, Melanie Vogel, Anne Zillikens. We would also like to thank the various work groups for providing us with photographs.

Bonn, December 2004

ISBN: 3-00-013641-X

The biodiversity symposium ”Sustainable use and conservation of biological diversity – A challenge for society” (Berlin, December 2003) as well as this proceedings book are financed by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. This publication is distributed free of charge by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as part of its public relations work. It is not intended for commercial sale. It may not be used by political parties, candidates or electoral assistants during an election campaign. This applies to parliamentary, state assembly and local government elections as well as to elections to the European Parliament. In particular the distribution of this publication at election events and at the information stands of political parties, as well as the insertion, printing or affixing of party political information, are regarded as improper use. The distribution of this publication to third parties as a form of campaign publicity is also prohibited. Regardless of how recipients came into possession of this publication and how many copies of it they may have, it may not be used in a manner that may be considered as showing the partisanship of the Federal Government in favour of individual political groups, even if not within the context of an upcoming election.

Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in West

For instance, the extensive removal of forest cover and degradation of land types is known to feed back into changes of the local and regional climate. As it is in part a closed-loop system, changes in regional climate in turn affect local and regional diversity patterns. How can these tremendous scientific challenges be met?

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