Brett Holverstott Community Design / Fifield March 19, 2009

Changing Demographics and Implications for Design

In the 1950’s, 60% of U.S. households fit the traditional nuclear family structure of a working husband, a homemaking wife, and kids (Erera 3). By 1999, married couples with children (including families where the women work outside the home) constituted only 24% of households, and 2020 projections are merely 20% of households (Riche 8). Although the nuclear family is the U.S. cultural prototype (and in some cases “ideal”), the 1950’s were an aberration compared to the diversity prior to and after the 50’s (Skolnick). The post-war era celebrated and subsidized the nuclear family through federally backed home mortgages and high minimum wages. Since the 50’s, much has changed. We are living longer; we are healthier in our old age; we have an influx of minorities (especially Hispanics), we are seeing a cultural shift in perceptions of marriage that is accompanied by the liberation of women, minorities, and homosexuals; and many are choosing not to wed or have children. Architects and community designers will need to understand these trends and design in anticipation of them.

How are demographics changing? First, we are living longer. Throughout history, children have been the largest percentage of the population, and high mortality rates shrink percentages of each age

group as they grow older. Now, children under age 10 constitute only 11.4% of the population, and soon there will be equal numbers of each age group (Riche 5). This means that married couples who raise children are waiting longer to have children, having fewer children, and once their children move out, have a longer post-child rearing stage. Married couples without children have become the largest U.S. household demographic, projected to be 39.7% of households by 2020 (Riche, 9). During the post-family but pre-retirement stage, people have the highest income of all demographics. The median income of households headed by individuals aged 45-55 is $54,148 (Riche, 14). Since we are not only living longer, but are healthier in our old age, the elderly are physically more able to live independently, and social security benefits allow them to do so financially. This means that single person households are growing, and that the average household size is shrinking. Second, the ethnic minority population is growing, through a combination of continued immigration, a younger populous, and higher fertility rates. Hispanics and African Americans each account for 12% of the U.S. population; by 2020 Hispanics will account for 17%. In 1999 a full 50% of Hispanic family households have children, compared to 40% for African Americans and 33% for non-Hispanic whites (Riche, 1011). Many differences in family structure also exist between minorities. Hispanic families are more likely than non-Hispanic whites to be extended families living under one roof; more likely to have multiple “nested” nuclear families living under one roof; and more likely to have grandparents (especially grandmothers) raising children.

Third, our society is moving toward greater equality and emancipation from conservative doctrines. The 1950’s was a time where women were often miserable and felt “trapped” at the home (Acock and Demo, 11). Women now have greater opportunity in the workplace, have access to contraception and abortion, and are considered entitled to decide their family status. This has led to more women living alone and financially independent; more single mothers by choice, and a slow relaxation of the stigmas associated with unmarried pregnancy. In 1959, 45.4% of single-parent families were widows; in 1992 this had dropped to 4.9% (Acock and Demo, 11). With the liberation from traditional roles also came the liberation of both men and women from conservative ideals of the marriage. Divorce rates steadily rose until the 1970’s; presently about 56% of all first marriages in the U.S. end in divorce. Remarriages that result mean that 33% of the U.S. population has a step-relative; and stepfamilies were estimated to outnumber first-marriage families by 2007. 40% of all marriages are remarriages. Meanwhile the marriage rate overall is declining (Erera 101, 136). In 1973 the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of psychiatric disorders. The ongoing fight for the rights of homosexuals and the transgendered have lead to more open gay and lesbian couples and families. There are about 3 million gay men and lesbians in the U.S. who are also parents. However, homosexuals continue to be seen suspiciously by the courts and often lose battles for legal custody of children after divorce. Gay and lesbian couples resemble nuclear families but occasionally result in interesting structures, whereby gay men may

conceive and raise children jointly with a woman with whom the man is not sexually involved. Or, a gay couple and lesbian couple may undertake parenthood together, with the sperm of the men used to inseminate the women (Erera, 169). Grandparent-led families have also been growing significantly. In 1997, 5.5 million children resided in households with a grandparent, which is an increase of over 40% since 1980 (Erera, 184). This is primarily due to skipped-generation families in which the parent is unavailable. Causes for this increase vary, but may be associated with divorce, nonmarital childbearing, finances, increased incarceration of women, and mental illness. Finally, non-family living has also been gaining prominence. Before 1960, unmarried people lived either with their parents, married children, or siblings. Otherwise they lived as outsiders in someone else’s family home. This began to change with young adults in the 1960’s, who found new independence in private homes (Goldscheider & White, 2). It is estimated that by 2020, 32% of households will be non-family (Riche, 9).

What are some major issues for architects and community designers? Privacy. Although house builders design for the traditional nuclear family, there are many family structures that can be accommodated well by similar designs if the number of persons remains similar. We might call these “non-traditional nuclear families” such as single-parent, step-parent, gay/lesbian, adoptive, foster, and grandparent-led family types. A significant shift comes with regard to the introduction

of another adult who does not share the same bed as the head of household; or when children become adults and continue to live with the parents. These introduce new demands for privacy and autonomy that may not exist in a house designed for close supervision of young children. Families may chose to build accessory dwelling units (ADU’s) to accommodate new privacy demands; turn part of the house that is more isolated (i.e. a basement) into a semi-private apartment, or, more likely, terminate the living situation. In some cases these privacy demands may not important, such as when giving care to a grandparent, or to an adult child who is experiencing mental illness. It is suggested that simple steps be taken to anticipate conversions of bedrooms or floors into ADU’s with separate entrances. The presence or absence of independent adults is mirrored by the presence or absence of children. Children have high demands on space in modern residential design, often given bedrooms, a separate recreation room, bathroom, and outdoor play space, as well as ample storage. Couples or singles without children have a significantly reduced space and privacy demands. Lofts are popular with singles living alone, as the entire space is undivided and may be used for living or working. As a third of households will be non-family by 2020, developers should consider heterogeneous housing developments reflecting this type.

Economics. Single parents families are a growing demographic. A vast majority of these families are headed by mothers; about 85% of divorces end with custody awarded to the mother (Erera, 102). Divorce law often fails to take into account

economic inequalities between women and men; and child support often favors men (Erera, 104). This means mother-headed single parent families are the poorest of all family groups; in 1991 47% of these were below the poverty line. The difficulty of working while raising children and simultaneously being subject to wage discrimination makes it very difficult to exist in this family structure. The same holds true for grandmother-headed families. Architects and community designers should pay careful attention to “lowincome” housing, while trying to avoid the drawbacks of this housing type—primarily segregation from other neighborhood types, which creates “bad” neighborhoods and limited access to good schools. Planners should also try to locate housing close to services as to eliminate the need to buy and maintain a car. The desegregation of income groups, and the sharing of public amenities such as parks, takes advantage of the higher incomes of other demographics. Further, we can encourage the return of extended families in the home, or in clusters of homes, so that families can pool resources and relatives can help raise the children.

Public Boundaries. The lack of boundary clarity can be a source of stress and dysfunction (Boss & Greenberg, 1984). Non-traditional family structures may require special considerations for openness or closure. Since the physical boundaries of the family, such as fences and the residence itself, may be seen as the representative of psychological boundaries, this has implications for design. A family formed by divorce and remarriage may need to have fewer physical boundaries so that psychologically

the participants have more open relationships and perceive greater freedom. By contrast, families headed by lesbian or gay couples may need to provide greater enclosure and barriers from a world in which homophobia, stigma, and discrimination are common (Erera 212, Slater & Mencher, 1991). In a stepfamily, there might be a more direct relationship between the interior spaces and the street; whereas in a lesbian/gay family, there might be a stepped hierarchy of enclosed spaces that one must pass through (outer yard, inner yard, courtyard, vestibule) before arriving at the interior space. Extended families or small supportive communities who have need of enclosure may organize themselves around courtyards to provide an open interior environment clearly differentiated from the public street. This implies that form-based codes specifying organization of building facades ,including fences and porches, may be detrimental to family diversity, and should be tailored to occupant needs.

Social Isolation. Social life provides what family life does not, and reinforces what family life does provide. Non-traditional family structures perform differently (not necessarily “better” or “worse”) in the psychological needs of growing children. Boys in single-mother headed families, or in lesbian families, may need to reach out for male role-model in order to become well socialized. Girls may need to do the same in single-father headed families or gay families. Often single-parent families involve other adults in mentoring children. From an evolutionary point of view, human beings evolved largely in small to medium sized tribes consisting of a cross-section of the human population including extended family. Families where the grandparents are

unavailable may produce deficiencies not yet researched. For satisfaction of these deficiencies it is important for children to be exposed not just to other children, but to a community of adults. Social life is also important for heads of households. Statistics have shown that young marriages are strengthened by a network of social connections to friends and family; it is ironic that in modern society marriage often leads to greater social isolation. Grandparents raising children also report feeling isolated from others in similar situations, and even from their family and friends (Erera 193). Implications for design include walkable communities; communities with dense centers offering a range of activities and services; encouraging extended families to settle near one another; encouraging integration of typically segregated demographics (including minorities, single-parents, and the elderly) within the neighborhood fabric, while at the same time allowing for community cohesion within these groups by way of cluster housing. While in many ways suburbia socially isolates adolescents from their peers, adults are mobile and do not always experience this limitation. In reality, however, they have less leisure due to the time requirements of commuting to work, and subsequently taxiing their children. By reducing reliance on the automobile while reducing the segregation of working and living, parents (especially wage-earning ones) may find they have more time for a social life. By walking more than riding in an automobile, married couples may rediscover some spontaneity that is typically lost with married life.

Families are constantly in flux. Births, aging, marriages, divorces, and changes in employment, are all factors in change. It is common for families to change residences as their family changes, especially when they have the economic means to do so. But this has side-effects in the loss of community cohesion and social networks that could be deterred by considering flexibility in design. Adding ADU’s when grandmother needs to be taken care of; renting the ADU out when economic times are difficult; framing buildings such that they can be easily expanded, horizontally or vertically, as families grow—these are potential solutions that allow families to “age in place” and grow with their community.

Conclusions I have attempted to identify some of the key issues that arise out of the shifting U.S. demographics. In reality, each area will have a demographic microclimate, with different local concentrations of minorities or levels of affluence. But broadly speaking, it is standard practice to build housing developments of expensive, identical homes, far away from services and from town centers, and segregated from large rental housing blocks—which may be no closer to services. This practice should change: we should integrate family homes and non-family homes into neighborhoods; use construction practices encouraging flexible housing capable of growth and subdivision; integrate owned units and rental units into neighborhoods; make more housing accessible to lower incomes; and locate neighborhoods more closely to places of employment and basic services—if not in mixed zoned areas where they can

closely intermingle. It may also be advantageous to offer cluster housing for large extended families or small communities that share a common bond; reflecting not only the greater liberalism of lifestyle attitudes, but of the influx of minority groups for whom extended family is an important cultural heritage.

References: Acock, Alan, and Demo, David. Family Diversity and Well-Being. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994. Boss, P., & Greenberg, J. “Family boundary ambiguity: A new variable in family stress theory.” Family Process, 23 535-546. Erera, Pauline. Family Diversity: Continuity and Change in the Contemporary Family. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002. Goldcheider, Frances, and Waite, Linda. New Families, No Families? Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991. Riche, Farnsworth. “The Implications of Changing U.S. Demographics for Housing Choice and Location in Cities.” discussion paper for the Brookings Institute Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy (www.brook.edu/urban), 2001. Skolnick, A. “Embattled paradise: The American family in an age of uncertainty.” New York: Basic Books, 1991 Slater, S. & Mencher, J. The lesbian family life cycle: A contextual approach. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61 (3), 372-382.

Brett Holverstott Community Design / Fifield March 19 ...

Mar 19, 2009 - The desegregation of income groups, and the sharing of public amenities such as parks, takes advantage of the higher incomes of other demographics. Further, we can encourage the return of extended families in the home, or in clusters of homes, so that families can pool resources and relatives can help ...

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